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BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

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INSECT    BIOGRAPHIES 

WITH    PEN   AND  CAMERA 


DELIGHTFUL  NATURE  BOOKS 

UNIFORM   WITH  THIS  VOLUME 

Through  Birdland  Byways  with  Pen  and 
Camera.  By  Oliver  G.  Pike,  F.Z.S., 
F.R.P.S. 

1 2  mounted  collotype  plates. 
36  full-page  art  cuts  in  duo-tone. 
2 1 6  pages  of  text  (demy  8vo). 
Charming  end  papers  in  colour. 
Handsome  full  gilt  cloth  binding. 

Farther  Afield    in    Birdland.     By  Oliver 
G.  Pike.     224  pages,  12  Collotype  Plates,  36 
full-page  cuts,  charming  end  papers. 
Better  gift  books,  either  for  adults,  boys,  or  girls, 
can  hardly  be  imagined.     The  reader  dwells  in  the 
fairyland  of  Nature  ;  the  author  shows  us  some  of 
Nature's  most  wonderful  secrets.     The  works  are 
the  outcome  of  years  of  tireless  study  and  observa- 
tion.    The  illustrations  are  most  remarkable. 

Wild  Animals  and  the  Camera.  By 
W.  P.  Dando,  F.Z.S. 

1 2  mounted  collotype  plates. 
58  art  plates  in  duo-tone. 
1 80  pages  of  text  (demy  8vo). 
Charming  end  papers  in  colour. 
"'"  Handsome  full  gilt  cloth  binding. 

More  Wild  Animals  and  the  Camera.     By 
W.    P.    Dando.     228  pages,    12  Collotype 
Plates,  58  cuts,  charming  end  papers. 
Mr.  Dando  needs  no  introduction  ;  his  marvellous 
studies  of  wild  animal  life  have  achieved  an  inter- 
national reputation.     These  books  include  his  best 
photographs,   with    accurate,    delightfully    written 
letterpress.     ^Corning  Post :  "  Mr.  Dando  will  re- 
ceive   the    thanks    of    all    for  having  written    and 
illustrated  such  fascinating  books." 


COLOUR    PHOTO-]  [jOHN    J.    WARD,    F.E.8. 

SWALLOW-TAIL    BUTTERFLIES. 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

WITH  PEN  AND  CAMERA 


BV 

JOHN  J.    WARD,   F.E.S. 

AUTHOR  OP  "LIFE  HISTORIES  OF  FAMILIAR  PLANTS,"  "SOME  NATURE 
BIOGRAPHIES,"  "PEEPS  INTO  NATURE'S  WAYS,"  ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED  WITH   PHOTOGRAPHS  AND   PHOTO-MICRO- 
GRAPHS TAKEN   BY  THE   AUTHOR 


NEW  YORK 

FREDERICK  A.   STOKES  CO. 
PUBLISHERS 


PREFACE 

THE  science  of  Entomology  is  one  the  im- 
portance of  which  has  not  yet  been  fully 
realized.  Until  quite  recent  times  the  man  who 
went  into  the  fields  with  a  magnifying  lens  and 
a  net  was  regarded  as  a  more  or  less  harmless 
crank.  To-day  that  idea  has  become  considerably 
modified,  and  man  is  learning  that  his  own  life  is 
often  menaced  by  the  insignificant  insects  which 
buzz  and  move  around  him ;  likewise  with  his 
cattle  and  his  crops,  for  these  are  even  more 
threatened  than  he  is  himself. 

The  entomologists  of  to-day  are  rendering  vast 
services  to  humanity,  and  those  of  the  future  will 
wield  powers  the  significance  of  which  we  are  as 
yet  scarcely  able  to  comprehend.  Nevertheless, 
the  study  of  insect  life  has  yet  to  be  made  popular. 

To  assist  in  the  later  purpose  the  life-histories 
contained  in  this  volume  are  designed.  It  is  of 
growing  importance  that  the  public  should  be 
taught  in  plain  and  simple  language  the  details  in 
the  lives  of  familiar  insects — many  of  which  are 
our  valuable  friends,  and  at  the  same  time  are 
deadly  enemies  of  some  of  our  worst  insect  foes. 

The  writer  has  made  every  effort  in  the  various 
chapters  to  avoid  that  scrappiness  of  treatment  so 


vi  PREFACE 

often  found  in  so-called  Nature  Study  books. 
Some  of  the  chapters  deal  with  insects  which  may 
be  regarded  neither  as  friends  nor  enemies  of  man, 
but  which  present  some  exceedingly  interesting 
aspects  of  insect  life. 

The  photographs  which  illustrate  this  volume, 
and  which  the  writer  trusts  will  compare  well  with 
anything  of  the  kind  that  has  been  published 
hitherto,  have,  with  one  or  two  obvious  exceptions, 
all  been  photographed  directly  from  living  insects. 
No  fine  entomological  pins  have  been  used  to 
secure  the  insects  here  depicted.  Every  insect 
is  in  its  natural  pose — a  feature  which  often 
necessitated  many  hours  of  patient  waiting  with 
camera  all  in  readiness. 

I  will  therefore  ask  my  readers  to  accept  this 
volume  in  the  spirit  in  which  it  is  offered,  namely, 
as  an  effort  to  popularize  a  science  of  enormous 
importance  but  which,  in  the  public  eye,  is  still 
unpopular.  There  will,  of  course,  be  the  usual 
critics,  for  they,  like  the  poor,  are  always  with  us. 
To  these  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  author 
is  fully  aware  that  the  cover  of  the  volume  is 
decorated  with  a  spider's  web,  and  that  the 
chapter  on  Spiders  contained  in  the  volume  is 
duly  apologized  for  on  pages  188  and  189. 

J.  J.  W. 

RUSINURBE  HOUSE, 

SOMERSET  ROAD,  COVENTRY. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.      THE  LIFE-STORY  OF  THE  LACEWING  FLY   .      13 
II.      THE    TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    A    SWALLOW- 
TAIL BUTTERFLY    .  .  .  .25 

III.  THE  LIFE-STORY  OF  THE   PUSS  MOTH  .      32 

IV.  THE   "DEATH   WATCH"   BEETLE  .  .      47 
V.      TREE-WASPS  AND  GROUND-WASPS      .  .      57 

VI.      THE  LIFE-STORY  OF  A  HOVER-FLY  .  .      76 

VII.     WINTER  BUTTERFLIES  .  .  .86 

VIII.     AN    INTERVIEW    WITH    A    DEVIL'S    COACH- 
HORSE  BEETLE         .  .  .  .103 
IX.      THE   LIFE-STORY  OF  THE   LUNAR   HORNET- 
MOTH              .                .                .                .  -Ill 
X.      THE    LIFE-STORY    OF    THE    PAINTED    LADY 

BUTTERFLY  .  .  .  .127 

XI.      FLEAS    .  .  .  .  •  -    H1 

XII.      THE   MAGPIE   MOTH   AND   ITS   PARASITES      .    150 

XIII.      A   SPIDER-HUNTING  WASP   AT  WORK  .    162 

xiv.    THE  DOR-BEETLE'S  MITE      .  .  .170 

XV.      THE  LIFE-STORY  OF  THE  PURPLE  EMPEROR 

BUTTERFLY  .  .  .  .176 

XVI.      SOME  DETAILS  OF   SPIDER  LIFE          .  .187 


INDEX  .  .  .  .  .  .203 

vii 


LIST   OF   PLATES 

PLATE 

I.      SWALLOW-TAIL  BUTTERFLIES  .       Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

II.      CATERPILLARS       OF      THE      SWALLOW-TAIL 

BUTTERFLY  .  ,  .  .26 

III.  PUSS  MOTH  JUST  EMERGED  FROM  ITS 
COCOON  BETWEEN  THE  BARK.  THE 
MOTH  WITH  WINGS  FULLY  DEVELOPED.  46 

IV.      INTERIOR  OF  NEST  OF  THE  COMMON  WASP     64 

V.      NEST  OF  A   TREE-WASP    IN    A    HOLLY  AND 

HAWTHORN   HEDGE  .  .  .      70 

VI.      LARGE  WHITE  BUTTERFLIES  LOVE-MAKING      86 

VII.  PEACOCK  BUTTERFLY  RESTING.  THE  BUT- 
TERFLY EXPANDS  ITS  WINGS  .  .  90 

VIII.  TWO  COMMA  BUTTERFLIES,  SHOWING  THEIR 
RESEMBLANCE  TO  SHRIVELLED  LEAVES 
WHEN  RESTING  WITH  CLOSED  WINGS  .  94 

IX.  CHALK  HILL  BLUE  BUTTERFLIES  AT  REST. 
THE  BUTTERFLIES  IN  THE  ACT  OF 
FLIGHT  .  .  .  .  .102 

X.      THE  LONG-TAILED  ICHNEUMON   FLY  .    124 

XI.      A  BIRD-EATING  SPIDER— NATURAL  SIZE       .    194 

xii.    THE  SPIDER'S  DOOM— FROZEN  AT  HER  POST  200 

viii 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE  NOS.  FACING  PACK 

1-4.    LACEWING  FLY  .  .  .  .  .16 

Eggs  natural  size  and  magnified.  Abnormal  egg.  Larvae 
capturing  and  devouring  aphides. 

5-9.    LACEWING  FLY  .  .  .  .  .20 

Unique  photograph  of  larva.  Head  and  mandibles  of  larva. 
Cocoons.  Two  photographs  of  the  Lacewing  Fly. 

10-12.    SWALLOW-TAIL  BUTTERFLY    .  .  .  .28 

The  insect  with  its  wings  expanded.  The  chrysalis.  The 
butterfly  emerging  from  its  chrysalis. 

13-15.    SWALLOW-TAIL  BUTTERFLY    .  .  .  .30 

Three  photographs  showing  development  of  its  wings. 

16-18.    Puss  MOTH       .  .  .  .  .  .34 

Egg  with  caterpillar  emerging.  Caterpillars  when  three 
days  old.  Half-grown  larvae. 

19-21.    Puss  MOTH       .          .          .          .          .          .38 

Larvae  when  "  eye  "-spots  have  appeared.  Full-grown 
caterpillars  feeding.  The  parasitic  Ichneumon  Fly  attacking 
a  caterpillar. 

22-24.    Puss  MOTH       .          .          .          .          .          .44 

Cocoon,  external  and  internal  aspects.  The  moth  resting 
on  the  bark. 

25-28.    "  DEATH-WATCH  "  BEETLE     .  .  .  .50 

The  beetle  magnified.  Part  of  a  picture-frame  and  a  wooden 
gas-fitting  block  attacked  by  the  larvae. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE  NOS.  FACING  PAGE 

29-32.  WASPS      .          .          .          .          .          V          .    60 

Males,  queens,  and  workers.  Queen  wasp  tearing  off  wood 
fibres.  Nest  of  Tree-wasp.  Ditto  in  section. 

33-35-     WASPS     ....        ;  \  .  .     66 

Larvae  and  pupae.  Emerging  from  the  cells.  Eggs  and 
fully-developed  worker. 

36-37.    WASPS    .....          .,  .    72 

Nests  of  Tree-wasp  with  outer  covering  removed. 

38-40.     WASPS     .  .  .  .  .  .  -74 

Nest  of  Ground- wasp.  A  huge  comb  of  the  common  wasp. 
Three  samples  of  wasp-paper. 

41-44.    HOVER-FLY        .  .  .  .  .80 

Egg  on  sweet-pea  flower.  Ditto  magnified.  The  grub  just 
emerged.  Novel  photograph  of  the  grub  with  its  first 
green- fly. 

45-48.    HOVER-FLY        .  .  .  .  .  .82 

The  young  grub  with  a  green-fly  larger  than  itself.  Feeding 
movements  of  a  full-grown  grub. 

49-52.    HOVER-FLY        .  .  .  .  .  .84 

Feeding  movements  of  full-grown  grub  (contimied).  The 
chrysalis.  Two  photographs  of  the  Hover-fly. 

53-57.    WINTER  BUTTERFLIES  .  .  .  .88 

Two  photographs  of  the  Red  Admiral.  A  Clouded  Yellow. 
The  Small  Tortoiseshell  and  the  Comma  Butterflies. 

58-62.    WINTER  BUTTERFLIES  .          .          .          .96 

Brimstone  butterflies.  Chrysalides  of  the  Large  White. 
Orange-tip  Butterflies  and  a  chrysalis.  The  Speckled 
Wood  Butterfly. 

63-68.    WINTER  BUTTERFLIES  .          .          .          .100 

The  Speckled  Wood  Butterfly  and  chrysalides  of  same. 
Small  Copper  Butterfly  and  young  larvae.  Eggs  of  the 
Silver-studded  Blue  and  the  High  Brown  Fritillary. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS  xi 


FIGURE  NOS.  FACING  PACK 

69-76.    DEVIL'S  COACH-HORSE  BEETLE     .          .          .106 

Showing  fight  manoeuvres.  Attacking  some  supposed 
enemies.  Holding  on  by  its  jaws.  An  attack  on 
the  author's  finger. 

77-82.    LUNAR  HORNET  MOTH       .          .          .          .114 

A  hole  in  a  willow  stump  and  what  came  out  of  it. 
The  moth  and  its  eggs. 

83-85.    LUNAR  HORNET  MOTH       .          .          .          .  122 

The  caterpillar  and  chrysalis  within  the  willow  stump. 
Spines  on  the  chrysalis  skin. 

86-93.    PAINTED  LADY  BUTTERFLY  .  .  .132 

Complete  development  from  the  egg  to  the  chrysalis 
stage. 

94-101.    PAINTED  LADY  BUTTERFLY  .          .          .136 

The  emergence  from  its  chrysalis  and  the  development 
of  its  wings. 

102-106.    FLEAS  .  .  .  .  .  .  .144 

Of  the  rat,  great  noctule  bat,  and  the  hedgehog. 
Jumping  leg  and  pygidium  of  a  flea. 

107-109.    FLEAS  .......  148 

Lancets  of  the  rabbit  and  human  fleas  compared.  Also 
head  and  foreparts  of  the  latter. 

110-118.    MAGPIE  MOTH  AND  ITS  PARASITES         .          .156 

Eggs,  caterpillars,  chrysalis,  and  moth.  Tachina  Fly 
and  its  pupa.  Ichneumon  Fly  searching  for  caterpillars. 
A  spider-hunting  wasp's  victim. 

119-121,    DOR-BEETLE'S  MITE  .          .          .          .172 

The  Beetle.  A  magnificent  view  of  its  mite  and  one 
of  its  mouth-pincers. 

122-127.    PURPLE  EMPEROR  BUTTERFLY      .          .          .182 

Caterpillars  feeding.  Chrysalis  and  the  newly-emerged 
butterfly. 


xii  LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE  NOS.  FACING  PAGE 

128-131.    PURPLE  EMPEROR  BUTTERFLY     .          .          .184 

How  the  butterfly  prepared  for  flight. 

1 32-1 33-    SPIDER  LIFE  ....         ,*          .  192 
The  beautifully-constructed  snare.    A  thread  magnified 
to  show  its  viscid  globules. 

134-137-    SPIDER  LIFE  .          .          .          .          .          .196 

The  home; of  a  Trap-door  Spider.    The  spinnerets  and 
their  silk-emitting  tubes.      Foot  and  comb-like  claws. 

138-139.    SPIDER  LIFE  .          .          .          .          .          .198 

The  face  of  a  spider,  and  its  mouth-parts. 


CHAPTER   I 

THE   LIFE-STORY  OF  THE  LACEWING  FLY 

(Chrysopa   vulgaris) 

ON  almost  any  evening  during  the 
summer  twilight  the  charming 
Lacewing  Fly  may  be  seen  ;  its  curious 
flight  alone  will  suffice  to  identify  it. 
Between  the  hedge-rows  of  the  lanes,  in 
the  garden  paths,  or  along  the  woodland 
glades,  it  may  be  readily  distinguished  from 
the  numerous  moths  that  appear  as  the 
daylight  declines.  The  flights  of  the 
moths  are  very  varied  in  character  ;  some 
of  the  larger  and  dark-coloured  kinds 
sweep  past  at  a  tremendous  pace,  their 
movements  leaving  doubt  in  the  mind  of 
the  observer  whether  his  eyes  have  not 
deceived  him,  while  many  of  the  smaller 
and  pale-coloured  species  flutter  about  like 
wind-tossed  snow-flakes.  Between  these 
two  extreme  methods,  every  gradation  of 
locomotion  by  flight  may  be  observed. 


'  i4  :         :  -  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Distinct  from  all,  however,  appears  that 
of  another  insect.  It  is  apparently  travel- 
ling along  a  straight  line,  its  pale  silvery 
wings  extended  wide  and  rapidly  vibrating, 
but  its  progress  is  so  slow  and  laboured 
when  compared  with  even  the  slowest- 
flying  moth  that  we  are  reminded  of  a 
traction  engine  moving  along  a  road  on 
which  motor-cars  and  cyclists  are  hurrying 
by.  This  slowly-progressing  insect  is  the 
Lacewing  Fly. 

Although  I  liken  its  progress  to  that  of 
the  traction  engine,  the  fly  itself  is  by  no 
means  a  clumsy  insect.  Indeed,  it  is  one 
of  the  most  delicate  and  charming  amongst 
British  insects.  Its  body  is  of  a  pale 
emerald  green,  while  its  lace-like,  silvery- 
grey  wings  are  iridescent  with  lovely  hues, 
varying  from  pink  to  green  in  the  changing 
light.  Also,  its  eyes  are  veritable  living 
jewels,  sparkling  one  moment  like  burn- 
ished gold,  the  next  becoming  rubies  of 
the  deepest  crimson,  only  to  quickly 
change  again  in  the  shifting  light  to 
emeralds  of  the  brightest  green ;  hence  it 
is  sometimes  called  the  Golden-eyed  Fly. 

The    Lacewing    Fly   is   easily   captured 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  15 

with  a  sweep  of  the  hand  as  it  toils  past 
in  its  slow  and  apparently  laboured  flight ; 
lest,  however,  my  description  of  its  aesthetic 
features  should  so  tempt  the  inquiring 
observer,  I  must  offer  a  word  of  warning. 
This  lovely  insect  when  captured  in  the 
hand  almost  immediately  becomes  offen- 
sive in  the  highest  degree,  for  it  can 
produce  an  odour  so  evil  that,  deceived 
by  the  insect's  delicate  form  and  pretty 
colours,  its  captor  often  fails  to  recognize  in 
it  the  source  of  so  vile  a  characteristic — 
so  incongruous  is  the  combination.  This 
offensive  trait  probably  protects  the  insect 
against  the  attacks  of  some  of  its  foes  ; 
and  how  excellent  a  protective  device  it 
is  those  of  my  readers  who  inadvertently 
handle  a  Lacewing  Fly  will  soon  discover, 
for  the  smell  is  not  removed  from  the 
fingers  with  one  washing,  and  when  gloves 
and  clothes  have  become  involved  the 
unfortunate  wearer  is  troubled  with  it  for 
days  afterwards.  The  Lacewing  Fly  is, 
indeed,  the  counterpart  of  the  skunk 
amongst  British  insects. 

When  gardeners  become  more  scientific, 
and  learn  to  recognize  that  many  insects 


16  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

which  they  ruthlessly  exterminate  are  their 
best  friends,  the  Lacewing  Fly  will  hold  a 
very  high  place  in  their  estimation  ;  indeed 
they  will  find  it  extremely  profitable  to 
occasionally  capture  a  few  of  them,  or,  even 
better,  to  collect  their  eggs  for  the  express 
purpose  of  placing  them  in  their  green- 
houses. The  eggs  may  frequently  be 
found  on  the  leaves  of  various  plants  in 
the  garden  and  fields.  In  illustration 
Fig.  i,  a  lilac  leaf  is  shown  on  which 
may  be  seen  eleven  of  these  curious 
stalked  eggs.  Now,  if  a  stem  bearing 
such  a  leaf  as  this  were  transferred  to  a 
greenhouse  during  June,  it  is  very  prob- 
able that  that  simple  action  would  entirely 
obviate  the  necessity  for  the  use  of  tobacco 
paper  and  similar  fumigating  devices  later 
on  as  a  means  of  exterminating  the  aphides 
or  blight ;  for  the  Lacewing  Fly  in  its 
early  stages  is  one  of  the  natural  foes  of 
these  troublesome  pests. 

In  Fig.  2,  an  enlarged  view  of  one  of 
these  eggs  is  shown,  and  it  is  interesting 
to  investigate  the  significance  of  its  curious 
form  and  also  how  it  was  produced.  The 
Lacewing  Fly  when  egg  depositing  presses 


1.  Stalked  eggs  of  the  Lacewing  Fly — natural  size. 

2.  A  magnified  view  of  one  of  the  eggs. 

3.  An  abnormal  egg  :  two  eggs  deposited  on  one  footstalk. 

4.  Larvae  of  the  Lacewing  Fly  capturing  and  devouring  aphides, 

nr    crrf*f*r\    flio^ r^i  +  i-i*--^  1    ,-,.;,,«. 


or  green-flies — natural  size. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  17 

the  end  of  the  abdomen  against  a  leaf  and 
ejects  a  drop  of  glutinous  fluid,  which 
spreads  into  a  tiny  conical  foot-stalk.  The 
end  of  the  abdomen  is  then  quickly  raised, 
and  from  the  summit  of  the  deposited 
gluten  a  thread  is  drawn  out,  which 
hardens  with  exposure  to  the  air.  On  the 
top  of  the  thread  she  then  deposits  an  egg. 
In  from  seven  to  eight  days  the  larva 
emerges  from  the  egg  and  the  necessity  for 
the  long  stalks  on  which  the  eggs  are 
placed  then  becomes  obvious.  The  newly- 
hatched  larva  is  a  most  voracious  animal, 
and  its  appetite  increases  prodigiously  as 
it  grows. 

From  one  of  a  number  of  eggs  which  I 
had  under  close  observation  for  the  pre- 
paration of  this  chapter,  in  exactly  seven 
days  after  it  was  deposited  I  witnessed 
the  emergence  of  the  larva.  After  it  had 
burst  through  the  shell  it  stood  for  several 
minutes  on  the  broken  part  at  the  end  of 
the  thread.  Then  it  proceeded  to  feel  its 
way  carefully  along  the  egg-stalk  towards 
the  leaf,  on  which  I  had  placed  several 
aphides. 

As  soon  as  it  reached  the  leaf  an  aphis 


1 8  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

crossed  its  path,  and,  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  aphis  was  double  its  own  size,  the 
larva  immediately  gripped  it  by  means  of 
the  large  mandibles  with  which  it  is  armed. 
The  aphis  wriggled,  but  all  in  vain.  At 
the  end  of  twenty-five  minutes  the  larva 
cast  on  one  side  the  empty  and  shrunken 
skin  of  the  aphis.  Such  was  its  first  meal. 
When  about  ten  days  old  it  could,  when 
hungry,  devour  aphides  at  the  rate  of  thirty 
to  forty  per  hour.  Also,  from  experiments 
made,  I  discovered  that  aphides  were  not 
the  only  kind  of  food  of  which  it  would 
partake.  It  spent  some  considerable  time 
amongst  a  batch  of  eggs  of  the  common 
cabbage  moth,  inserting  its  sharp  mandi- 
bles into  their  shells  and  sucking  their 
contents.  The  juices  of  little  caterpillars 
just  emerged  from  the  egg,  it  seemed  to 
particularly  relish.  Furthermore,  one  of 
its  younger  brothers  that  I  had  confined 
with  it,  suddenly  and  mysteriously  disap- 
peared ;  the  mystery,  however,  was 
explained  by  the  finding  of  its  shrunken 
skin  amongst  those  of  the  aphides.  Also, 
this  larva  had  no  objection  to  sucking  the 
eggs  of  its  own  species  when  they  were 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  19 

offered  to  it.  This  latter  fact  probably 
explains  the  origin  and  use  of  the  stalks, 
for  if  the  Lacewing  Fly's  eggs  were 
deposited  on  the  leaf  like  those  of  the 
moths  and  other  insects,  they  would 
doubtless  experience  the  same  fate  when 
this  ravenous  larva  came  upon  them,  but 
it  makes  no  attempt  to  climb  the  smooth 
stalk.  Its  only  journey  along  that  path 
is  when  it  emerges  from  the  egg  ;  and  if  its 
movements  are  then  watched  through  a 
magnifying  lens,  it  becomes  plain  that  this 
is  a  very  difficult  though  necessary  task 
that  it  has  to  perform. 

The  illustration  Fig.  3  shows  that 
abnormal  eggs  are  sometimes  deposited 
by  insects.  The  Lacewing  Fly  that  de- 
posited this  double  egg  evidently  lost 
count,  or  else  was  in  a  great  hurry.  If  the 
latter  was  the  case,  I  fear  that  the  mother 
insect  sadly  erred,  for  whichever  larva 
emerged  first  would  almost  certainly  insert 
its  mandibles  into  the  egg  of  the  other, 
before  making  its  journey  along  the 
stalk. 

From  what  I  have  here  stated  it  should 
be  obvious,  I  think,  that  a  leaf  or  stem 


20  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

containing  a  few  of  these  eggs,  if  conveyed 
into  a  greenhouse  or  placed  amongst 
plants,  will  ultimately  be  the  means  of 
causing  much  destruction  amongst  the 
aphides  and  other  injurious  insects  that  the 
gardener  well  knows.  In  Fig.  4,  several 
photographs  are  shown  to  illustrate  howr 
these  active  little  larvae  move  about  the 
leaves  and  branches  capturing  and  devour- 
ing their  prey.  When  full  grown  they  are 
only  about  half  an  inch  in  length,  but  their 
feeding  powers  are  most  astonishing.  To 
properly  appreciate  the  attack  of  one  of 
them  upon  its  prey,  a  magnifying  lens 
should  be  used,  and  in  the  photograph 
shown  in  Fig.  5  the  scene  is  depicted  as 
it  then  appears.  The  larva  is  seen  on  the 
surface  of  a  leaf  holding  the  aphis  and 
sucking  its  juices  by  means  of  its  huge, 
sickle-shaped  jaws.  How  efficiently  these 
organs  are  adapted  for  that  work  I  have 
endeavoured  to  show  in  Fig.  6. 

For  twelve  days  the  larva  proceeds  with 
its  destructive  work  amongst  the  aphides, 
mites,  and  other  plant  parasites,  becoming 
more  ravenous  every  day,  until  on  the 
twelfth  day  it  may,  after  fasting,  often  be 


8 


A  unique  magnified  photograph  of  the  larva  of  the  Lacewing 

Fly  attacking  a  green-fly. 
Head  of  the  larva,  showing  its  mandibles. 
The  curious  cocoons  formed  by  the  larvae. 
The  Lacewing  Fly  depositing  eggs  on  a  lilac  leaf. 
Another  view  of  the  Lacewing  Fly. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  21 

seen  to  destroy  aphides  at  the  rate  of 
one  per  minute. 

About  the  twelfth  day,  however,  it  gives 
up  feeding  and  prepares  for  the  next  stage 
of  its  existence.  It  draws  itself  up  in  ball- 
like  fashion,  usually  on  the  edge  of  a  leaf, 
and  slowly  envelops  itself  in  silk  which  it 
spins  for  the  purpose.  A  few  hours  later 
it  has  changed  into  an  almost  circular 
cocoon  about  the  size  of  a  sweet  pea ;  three 
cocoons  are  shown  on  bramble  leaves  at 
natural  size  in  Fig.  7. 

Sixteen  days  later  the  cocoons  are  cut 
open  from  within,  a  circular  lid  opening  at 
the  top  of  each,  and,  like  a  Jack-in-the-box, 
the  fully-developed  insect  emerges.  It  is 
surprising  how  so  large  an  insect  can 
develop  in  so  small  a  cocoon,  but,  immedi- 
ately it  appears  upon  the  surface  of  the 
leaf,  its  wings  begin  to  shake  out  their 
folds,  and  a  few  minutes  later  we  see  the 
insect  developing  in  all  its  charming  hues. 
Its  bright  green  body,  its  gauzy  and  iri- 
descent wings,  and  its  sparkling  eyes 
(together  with  its  abominable  characteristic 
of  producing  a  most  vile  odour),  have  all 
been  acquired  in  some  mysterious  way 


22  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

during  the  sixteen  days  while  it  was 
crushed  within  its  little  cocoon  upon  the 
leaf.  How  the  magic  was  performed  is  a 
secret  hidden  deep  within  the  pages  of 
Nature's  book. 

The  perfect  insect  is  shown  in  Figs.  8 
and  9,  where  it  is  seen  to  have  been 
depositing  its  eggs  upon  a  lilac  leaf. 
Allowing  seven  days  for  the  egg  stage, 
twelve  for  the  larval  period,  and  sixteen  for 
the  pupa  or  chrysalis  stage,  it  is  seen  that 
the  whole  development  from  the  egg  to 
the  winged  insect  occupies  about  five 
weeks.  It  follows,  therefore,  that  several 
broods  of  these  insects  appear  during  the 
summer  months.  The  last  brood  of  larvae 
remain  in  their  cocoons  throughout  the 
winter,  appearing  early  in  June  just  as  the 
aphides  are  becoming  plentiful. 

Reaumur  estimated  that  a  single  aphis 
may  become  the  first  parent  to  no  fewer 
than  5,904,900,000  individuals  during  the 
few  weeks  of  its  life,  while  Prof.  Huxley 
computed  that  the  descendants  of  a  single 
aphis,  if  allowed  to  multiply  unchecked  for 
ten  generations,  would  then  produce  a  bulk 
of  organic  matter  equivalent  in  weight  to 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  23 

that  of  five  hundred  millions  of  human 
beings,  each  of  which  could  turn  the  scale 
at  twenty  stones. 

With  these  computations  in  mind  we 
have  only  to  think  of  the  vast  number  of 
aphides  that  may  infest  a  single  branch  or 
leaf  of  a  plant,  and  to  remember  that  each 
aphis  possesses  this  same  marvellous 
power  of  multiplication,  to  realize  that  the 
existing  vegetation  of  the  earth  is  always 
in  serious  danger  of  becoming  converted 
into  living  aphides,  unless  some  efficient 
agents  are  always  employed  in  the  work 
of  their  destruction. 

Conspicuous  amongst  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  agents  are  the  larvae  of  the 
Lacewing  Flies,  of  which  there  are  some 
fourteen  or  fifteen  species  in  this  country ; 
while  in  America  these  insects  are  equally 
abundant. 

The  female  of  the  species  here  described 
will  deposit  as  many  as  forty  eggs  in  the 
course  of  one  night.  This  progeny  of 
forty  larvae  feeding  during  the  twelve  days 
of  their  larval  stage  in  a  greenhouse  con- 
taining plants  infested  with  aphides, 
would,  I  think,  prove  more  effectual  as 


24  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

aphide  destroyers  than  several  pounds 
spent  in  fumigating  devices.  Also  it 
would  probably  be  possible  to  produce  a 
second  or  third  generation,  if  the  green- 
house was  large,  and  provided  sufficient 
aphides  for  the  larvae  to  prey  upon. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE    TRANSFORMATIONS    OF    A 

SWALLOW-TAIL  BUTTERFLY 

(Papilio   machaori) 

THE  butterfly  was  an  exquisite  and 
marvellous  creature,  an  aristocrat 
amongst  British  butterflies.  Larger  than 
any  other  of  the  native  species,  its  arched 
and  clean-cut  wings  terminating  in  the 
sharp  tails  from  which  it  derives  its  popular 
name  (Fig.  10)  their  bright  yellow  artis- 
tically contrasted  with  edgings  and 
veinings  of  velvety  black,  relieved  here 
and  there  by  spots  of  silvery-blue  and 
orange-red,  one  needed  only  a  glance  to 
realize  that  the  insect  came  of  butterfly 
nobility.  As  it  rested  amongst  the 
umbelliferous  flowers  it  exposed  its 
delicate  and  handsome  wings  to  the  sun- 
light with  an  air  of  proud  dignity,  provid- 
ing, of  course,  that  you  did  not  approach 
it  too  closely ;  for  then  it  instantly  soared 


26  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

into  the  air,  and  the  utility  of  its 
wondrous  organs  of  flight  became 
apparent. 

Its  aerial  movements  were  the  more 
astonishing  when  it  was  espied  by  an 
amorous  mate :  for  the  butterfly  was  a 
virgin  female.  The  headlong  onrushes 
of  her  suitor  were  now  encouraged  and 
now  avoided  by  almost  hair-breadth  dis- 
tances, and  that  she  was  a  born  coquette 
not  a  shadow  of  a  doubt  could  remain. 
So  dancing  through  the  air  on  light 
wings,  the  insects  curvetted  here  and 
there,  she  coyly  inviting  and  then 
capriciously  turning  aside,  while  he 
followed  her  capricious  course  on  untiring 
wings. 

Such  picturesque  butterfly  frivolity 
may  often  be  witnessed  on  sunny  days 
in  the  fen  districts  of  the  eastern  counties, 
and  whenever  it  is  seen  it  must  always 
appear  as  a  miracle ;  especially  a  miracle 
when  one  realizes  the  processes  through 
which  the  fairy-like  butterflies  were 
evolved.  It  is  hard  to  believe  that  these 
same  insects,  seen  so  gaily  disporting 
themselves  in  the  sunlight,  were  once 


&Srkl 


'         . 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  -  27 

hungry  caterpillars,  crawling  about  the 
stems  of  the  wild  carrot  or  the  marsh 
parsley,  and  whose  sole  occupation  was 
to  gorge  themselves  with  the  green  leaves 
of  those  plants.  Even  as  caterpillars, 
though,  they  were  handsome  ;  their  pale 
green  bodies  marked  with  black  bands 
studded  with  orange  spots  (Plate  II)  gave 
them  a  striking  appearance. 

From  early  June  and  well  into  July 
the  caterpillar  continues  to  feed,  moulting 
its  skin  from  time  to  time  as  the  latter 
fills  up,  and  then  eating  the  cast  skin 
before  again  resuming  its  green  food.  At 
last  it  has  had  enough,  and  its  appetite, 
suddenly  declines.  From  that  hour, 
throughout  the  remainder  of  its  life 
period,  it  never  again  eats  green  food. 

The  caterpillar  then  proceeds  to  attach 
itself  by  a  silken  thread  at  its  tail  end  to 
the  stem,  and  also  by  a  silken  girdle  just 
above  the  centre  of  its  body.  So  attached 
to  the  stem,  it  awaits  the  assimilation  of 
its  final  meal  of  green  leaves,  and,  in  the 
course  of  a  few  hours,  it  moults  its  last 
caterpillar  skin.  In  this  way  it  is 
transformed  into  the  next  stage  of  its 


28  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

existence,  for  it  is  then  no  longer  a 
caterpillar,  but  has  become  a  chrysalis, 
or  pupa  (Fig.  11). 

At  first  the  chrysalis  is  of  a  bright 
green  colour,  but  as  the  vegetation 
become  yellowed,  the  pupa  also  assumes 
similar  hues,  probably  gaining  a  measure 
of  protection  by  this  simulation  of  its 
surroundings.  In  very  favourable  seasons 
the  butterflies  may  appear  in  August,  but 
more  often  they  do  not  emerge  until  the 
following  May  or  June. 

Frail  though  the  chrysalis  is,  there  it 
remains  on  the  reed  or  stem  to  which  it 
is  attached,  subjected  to  all  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  winter  months.  Though  it 
may  be  frozen  and  thawed  many  times,  yet 
within  it  the  broken-down  organic  sub- 
stance of  the  caterpillar  is  slowly  recon- 
structed, almost  every  distinguishable  organ 
being  dissolved  into  a  greenish  liquid,  in 
readiness  for  the  moulding  of  a  butterfly 
with  wings  of  lovely  hues. 

Strange  legs,  long  antennae,  or  feelers, 
a  body  divided  into  three  parts,  and 
marvellous  wings  clothed  with  innumerable 
scales  of  wondrous  colours,  all  appear 


10.  The  Swallow-tail  Butterfly  resting  with  its  wings  expanded. 

11.  The  Chrysalis. 

12.  The  Butterfly  just  emerged  from  its  chrysalis. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  29 

within  the  magic  chamber  of  the  chrysalis. 
More  wonderful,  too,  are  the  new  in- 
stincts developed  there.  The  caterpillar 
could  not  recognise  a  butterfly  of  its 
own  species,  so  different  are  their  lives 
and  habits.  Yet  the  butterfly,  only  a 
few  hours  after  its  emergence,  will 
recognise  its  mate  on  the  wing,  and 
without  instruction  will  seek  flowers 
from  which  to  sip  nectar  by  means  of  its 
long,  coiled  proboscis,  or  sucking-tongue, 
which  it  has  exchanged  for  the  biting 
mandibles  of  the  erstwhile  caterpillar. 

As  soon  as  spring  days  come  the  work 
is  completed,  and  all  is  in  readiness 
waiting  for  Nature  to  give  the  command. 
Then  almost  instantly  the  chrysalis 
is  expanded  from  within  to  its  utmost 
limits,  until  the  frail  covering  skin 
bursts  asunder,  and  from  it  crawls  a 
dowdy  and  crippled-looking  butterfly 
(Fig.  12). 

It  is  not  a  pleasing  insect  that 
emerges.  Its  wings  are  dumpy,  wet, 
and  distorted.  Hey  ^ presto!  though. 
Something  wonderful  is  happening.  At 
almost  the  first  step  the  butterfly  makes, 


30  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

its  wings  swell  outwards,  and  lo,  in  a 
moment  they  have  increased  to  double 
their  original  size  (Fig.  13).  Then  do 
we  realize  that  the  wings  are  unfolding 
and  expanding,  and  we  ask  ourselves 
how  it  was  possible  that  a  moment  ago 
they  were  pressed  into  the  chrysalis 
together  with  the  legs  and  body  of  the 
butterfly,  and  yet  thus  emerge  without 
a  defect  on  their  surface ;  the  process 
becomes  an  insoluble  mystery  to  us. 

In  a  period  of  less  than  one  minute, 
the  chrysalis  has  burst  and  the  butterfly 
has  shaken  the  folds  from  its  wings 
(Fig.  14)  and  greets  the  eye  as  a  picture 
of  dainty  loveliness.  It  rests  and  suspends 
its  wings  in  space  while  they  dry  and 
harden.  Then  this  creature,  of  but  a  few 
sunny  days,  ascends  to  the  topmost  point 
of  the  branches,  and  there  exposes  to  the 
warm  sunlight  (Fig.  15  and  frontispiece) 
its  exquisitely  coloured  wings. 

Flight,  until  then,  could  never  have 
entered  its  head ;  yet  the  sight  of  a 
mate  overhead  was  sufficient  to  instantly 
fill  it  with  the  joy  of  life,  and  in  a 
moment  it  was  soaring  on  its  untried 


A -15 


13.  Its  wings  unfolding  and  expanding. 

14.  The  wings  extended  and  drying. 

15.  Ascending  the  stem  into  the  sunlight. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  31 

wings.  Soon  the  same  mysterious 
instinct  would  guide  it  to  deposit  its 
eggs  on  those  plants  so  dearly  loved 
by  the  caterpillars  of  its  species,  and 
this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  butterfly 
has  no  taste  for,  nor  can  it  ever  eat, 
green  food. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   LIFE-STORY   OF  THE    PUSS    MOTH 

(Dicranura   vinula] 

THE  two  main  factors  in  the 
struggle  for  existence  are,  neces- 
sarily, to  eat  and  to  avoid  being  eaten. 
The  Puss  Moth,  in  the  course  of  its 
evolution,  has  had  to  resort  to  some  most 
extraordinary  devices  to  escape  the  latter 
contingency.  Its  colours,  its  habits,  and 
its  anatomy,  throughout  all  its  stages, 
clearly  indicate  that  it  has  had  to  fight 
persistently  against  the  attacks  of  for- 
midable foes,  and  that  only  by  extreme 
defensive  methods  has  it  been  saved 
from  extermination.  The  history  of  this 
insect  is,  indeed,  a  most  wonderful 
chapter  in  insect  evolution. 

This  moth  may  be  found  from  May 
to  July.  It  deposits  its  eggs  on  the 
leaves  of  poplar  and  willow  trees,  and 
after  about  nine  days  the  little  caterpillar 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  33 

emerges,  often  taking  eight  or  ten  hours 
to  bite  its  way  through  the  strong  egg- 
shell. When  the  head,  which  is  the 
largest  part  of  its  anatomy,  is  through, 
the  rest  emerges  quickly.  It  is  of  a 
velvety  black  colour,  and  on  its  head 
are  two  curious,  ear-like  structures  (Fig. 
16)  which  disappear  as  it  gets  older; 
while  at  its  tail-end  it  possesses  a  forked 
appendage  from  which,  when  it  is  irri- 
tated, issue  two  delicate  pink  threads, 
the  function  of  which  will  be  considered 
later. 

The  young  larvae  make  no  attempt 
to  hide  themselves,  but  feed  boldly  on 
the  surface  of  the  leaf  (Fig.  17).  And 
now  we  observe  what  is  probably  the 
first  selective  device  for  their  protection — 
viz.,  their  black  colour,  for  the  little 
holes  in  willow  and  poplar  leaves  bear 
a  resemblance  to  black  spots  and 
markings,  while  bruised  parts  also  turn 
black.  Therefore  the  black  larvae  feeding 
on  them  are  not  conspicuous. 

Later  on,  when  they  begin  to  develop 
to  a  conspicuous  size,  they  moult  their 
skins  and  change  colour,  gradually 

3 


34  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

becoming  green,  assimilating  then  with 
the  leaves  of  the  food  plants  ;  their  upper 
surface,  however,  retains  a  brown  hue 
speckled  with  grey.  In  Fig.  18  two 
half-grown  larvae  are  shown  feeding  in 
•  their  characteristic  attitudes. 

At  this  stage,  when  about  a  month 
old,  a  curious  change  takes  place.  The 
caterpillar  again  moults  its  skin,  and 
it  then  appears  in  still  more  brilliant 
greens,  while  its  dorsal  parts  have 
developed  more  grey  colour,  giving  its 
body  a  shaded  effect.  Also  two  white 
wavy  bands  run  from  its  face  to  the 
hump  at  the  back  of  its  head,  and  from 
there  down  the  sides  of  its  body  to  its 
forked  tail.  What  strikes  the  observer 
most,  however,  is  its  face,  for  there  a 
most  remarkable  mask  has  developed  of 
a  rose-red  colour,  shaded  with  greyish- 
blue,  and  bearing  what  look  like  two 
staring  black  eyes. 

The  change  after  moulting  the  skin 
is  so  extraordinary,  that  one  can  scarcely 
believe  it  is  the  same  caterpillar.  In 
Fig.  19  is  a  photograph  of  three  larvae 
at  this  stage,  showing  their  masks.  On 


\ 


16 


18 


16.  Egg    of    Puss    Moth    with    the   caterpillar    just    emerging — 

magnified  20  diameters. 

17.  The  caterpillars,  when  three  days  old,  feeding  on  a  poplar 

leaf — natural  size. 

18.  Half-grown  larvae  before  they  develop  their  "eye"-spots. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  35 

comparison  with  Fig.  18  it  will  be  seen 
that  now,  in  the  place  of  the  two  ear- 
like  organs  which  were  so  conspicuous 
when  the  caterpillar  emerged  from  the 
egg,  have  developed  the  eye-spots  that 
give  to  the  caterpillar  such  a  striking 
and  terrifying  aspect. 

When  the  larva  again  moults  its  skin 
and  reaches  its  full  growth,  (generally 
during  August  or  September),  its  extra- 
ordinary mask  is  still  more  conspicuous, 
and  its  colours  are  brighter  than  ever ; 
indeed,  the  full-grown  caterpillar  when 
seen  isolated  from  its  surroundings, 
presents  a  most  startling  appearance, 
both  in  colour  and  form.  Two  of  the 
larvae  are  shown  peacefully  feeding  in 
Fig.  20  at  natural  size. 

Such,  then,  are  the  various  changes 
which  the  caterpillar  undergoes  during 
the  six  weeks  of  its  life,  and  one 
naturally  asks  the  meaning  of  these 
curious  metamorphoses  and  the  object 
of  this  extraordinary  mask.  I  use  the 
word  "  mask "  advisedly  since  it  is  not 
the  caterpillar's  real  face  that  is  exposed 
to  view.  Its  flat  head  is  withdrawn  into 


36  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  first  ring  of  the  body,  and  it  is  this 
ring,  so  curiously  coloured  and  bearing 
conspicuous  spots  appropriately  placed 
for  eyes,  that  produces  the  startling 
caricature  of  a  face.  It  remains,  then, 
to  ascertain  what  is  the  object  of  this 
singular  pretence. 

I  have  mentioned  that,  when  isolated 
from  its  surroundings,  the  caterpillar 
is  a  very  striking  animal ;  however,  when 
feeding  amongst  the  leaves  and  branches, 
in  spite  of  its  bold  colouring,  it  is  not 
at  all  conspicuous.  When  so  situated, 
its  broken  masses  of  green  and  brown, 
and  their  soft  shadings,  harmonise  so 
closely  with  the  moving  leaves  and 
brown  branches  that  it  becomes  very 
difficult  to  detect  it  by  ordinary  methods 
of  observation  ;  hence,  its  apparently 
conspicuous  colouring  serves  in  reality 
to  make  it  inconspicuous,  and  so  protects 
it  from  the  eyes  of  its  enemies. 

It  sometimes  happens,  though,  that 
the  caterpillar  is  discovered  by  an  enemy, 
and  it  is  then  that  the  object  of  its 
strange  disguise  becomes  apparent.  At 
the  slightest  touch  wrhen  feeding  on  the 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  37 

tree,  the  larva  instantly  turns  its  repulsive 
mask  towards  the  source  of  irritation, 
and,  so  to  speak,  glares  wildly  at  the 
enemy,  the  ring  of  the  body  bearing  the 
eye-spots  being  distended  to  its  fullest 
extent.  At  a  touch  from  the  opposite 
side  round  goes  the  "  face  "  in  that 
direction,  bearing  the  same  terrifying 
aspect,  which,  by  its  fixed  glare,  seems 
to  plainly  imply  some  considerable 
danger  to  the  enemy  if  it  is  further 
molested. 

How  effective  this  quick  movement 
of  the  head  and  the  sudden  presentation 
of  a  facial  monstrosity  are  as  a  protective 
device  may  be  readily  appreciated  by  the 
effect  it  has  upon  a  human  being  who 
touches  one  of  these  larvae  for  the  first 
time ;  rarely  will  he  touch  it  again  with- 
out an  assurance  that  no  harm  will  come 
from  the  venture.  Let  us  imagine,  then, 
that  some  bird  or  small  animal  meets 
one  of  these  caterpillars  resting  or  feeding 
amongst  the  branches,  and,  on  account 
of  its  colouring,  is  doubtful  whether  it 
would  make  a  toothsome  morsel.  It 
approaches  carefully,  and  probably  gives 


38  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  suspicious  object  a  preliminary  prod, 
just  as  man  himself  would  do.  Then 
the  caterpillar  suddenly  faces  round  with 
that  apparently  outraged  stare,  as  if  to 
say,  "  Who  dares  ? "  and  the  terrified  foe 
probably  takes  to  flight. 

When  a  healthy  larva  is  feeding,  a 
sudden  touch  may  often  produce  a 
further  surprise  for  the  enemy.  At  the 
moment  the  terrifying  mask  is  presented 
to  view  the  forked  tail  is  raised,  and 
from  its  two  prongs  the  pink  threads 
previously  referred  to  are  suddenly  pro- 
truded to  a  great  length,  and  lashed 
like  whips  over  the  caterpillars  head  and 
back.  In  Fig.  21  is  shown  a  caterpillar 
employing  both  these  artifices. 

Now,  it  happens  that  the  worst  foes 
with  which  the  larva  of  the  Puss  Moth 
has  to  contend  are  ichneumon  flies 
— parasitic  flies  which  boldly  attack 
the  caterpillar  and  deposit  their  eggs 
upon  it,  usually  behind  its  head.  From 
the  eggs  of  the  ichneumon  little  grubs 
emerge,  which  are  parasitic  upon  the 
caterpillar,  sucking  its  juices  from  the 
moment  they  break  through  the  egg- 


20 


Three  larva'  after  they  have  moulted  their  skins  and  the 
"eye'Vspots  have  appeared.  Note. — This  photograph  will 
be  better  appreciated  if  viewed  upside  down. 

Full-grown  caterpillars  feeding. 

The  parasitic  Ichneumon  Fly  approaching  the  caterpillar, 
which  the  latter  is  endeavouring  to  drive  away  by  means 
of  its  inflated  "face"  and  its  tail-whips. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  39 

shell,  and  adhering  firmly  afterwards. 
The  caterpillar  feeds  ravenously,  but 
the  appetites  of  its  boarders  increase  also. 
Eventually  the  larva  attains  its  full  growth 
and  spins  its  cocoon,  yet  it  is  never 
destined  to  become  a  moth,  for  the 
ichneumon  grubs  then  completely  devour 
the  soft  parts  of  their  host,  and  attain 
their  full  growth,  making  their  own 
cocoons  within  that  formed  by  the  cater- 
pillar, thus  utilizing  the  caterpillar's 
home  as  their  own. 

The  ichneumon-fly  is,  therefore,  a  formid- 
able enemy  that  has  to  be  dealt  with 
promptly  when  it  appears.  Whether  the 
caterpillar's  remarkable  simulation  of  a 
face  has  any  influence  on  the  ichneumon- 
fly  is  a  doubtful  point  ;  probably  that 
feature  is  only  of  service  in  scaring  larger 
foes,  including  man.  Its  tail  whips, 
however,  have  probably  been  developed 
purely  as  a  means  of  reaching  the  back 
of  its  head,  where  the  ichneumon-fly 
usually  makes  its  attack ;  for  these  organs 
are  really  the  caterpillar's  last  pair  of 
clasper  legs  modified  and  evolved  into 
tube-like  structures  and  endowed  with 


40  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

delicate  muscles,  which  allow  of  the 
sudden  protrusion  and  contraction  of  the 
pink  threads.  It  is  curious,  too,  that 
these  whips  should  be  of  a  colour  similar 
to  that  of  its  mask,  a  fact  which  seems  to 
imply  that  that  colour  may  have  some 
influence  on  the  particular  enemies  which 
the  insect  has  to  combat.  In  this  connec- 
tion, too,  we  have  to  remember  that 
colours  and  forms  which  we  may  regard 
as  merely  curious  or  quaint  may  affect 
other  animals  in  a  very  different  way, 
and  have  a  significance  which  they  have 
not  for  man.  Especially  is  this  true  of 
insects,  the  structure  of  whose  eyes  is  so 
very  unlike  our  own.  We  should  never 
overlook  the  fact  that  peculiarities  in 
an  organism  that  appear  to  us  useless,  and 
sometimes  absurd,  may  be  of  great  practical 
value  to  the  creature  possessing  them. 

So  far  as  is  known,  the  tail  whips  are 
perfectly  harmless  to  the  ichneumon,  and 
only  serve  to  drive  it  away,  just  as  a  cow 
removes  flies  from  its  back  by  the  switch 
of  its  tail.  Nevertheless,  the  parasitic 
ichneumon  takes  considerable  risk  in 
making  its  attack  upon  the  caterpillar. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  41 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  red  mask  is 
a  transverse  slit,  connected  with  a  gland 
in  which  a  strong  solution  of  formic  acid 
is  stored.  Professor  Poulton,  who  has 
made  many  interesting  experiments  with 
this  species  of  caterpillar,  states  that  this 
solution,  in  a  mature  larva,  contains  a 
proportion  of  acid  "  as  high  as  forty  per 
cent./'  which  is  a  much  greater  percentage 
than  that  found  in  the  stings  of  nettles, 
wasps,  hornets,  bees,  etc. 

This  irritant  fluid  the  larva  is  able  to 
eject  as  a  fine  spray  when  it  directs  its 
"  face  "  towards  an  enemy.  I  would 
suggest  that  the  mask  may  be  a  means 
of  holding  the  attention  of  the  enemy  in 
the  right  direction  to  receive  this  shower 
of  acid.  Of  the  effect  of  this  liquid,  we 
have  Professor  Poulton's  statement  that 
he  has  "  seen  a  marmoset  and  a  lizard 
affected  by  it,"  and  has  himself  "  twice 
experienced  sharp  pain  as  the  result  of 
receiving  a  very  small  quantity  in  the 
eye." 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  ichneu- 
mon fly  has  also  a  formidable  foe  to 
contend  with  while  carrying  out  the 


42  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

natural  functions  of  its  species  ;  indeed, 
it  is  a  life  and  death  struggle  between  the 
caterpillar  and  the  fly,  for  Professor  Poul- 
ton's  experiments  revealed  the  fact  that 
the  ichneumons  collapsed  immediately 
when  a  little  of  the  acid  was  placed  upon 
them,  "and  either  died  or  took  many 
hours  to  recover." 

Such  then  is  a  page  in  the  incessant 
warfare  between  living  creatures  that 
may  be  enacted  unseen  beneath  the 
green  leaves  of  a  poplar  or  willow  tree  ; 
a  warfare  which  has  been  going  on 
throughout  the  history  of  this  quaint 
caterpillar,  and  has  brought  such  an  in- 
fluence to  bear  upon  it  during  its  struggle 
for  existence  as  to  produce  those  extra- 
ordinary modifications  in  its  anatomy 
which  we  have  noticed,  such  as  its 
colour  simulation  of  its  surroundings,  its 
startling  mask,  its  tail  whips,  and  its 
poison-secreting  gland. 

The  ichneumon-fly  is  the  natural  foe 
of  the  caterpillar,  and  only  those  cater- 
pillars have  survived  that  have  inherited 
features  that  would  best  serve  as  weapons 
of  defence  against  the  attacks  of  this 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  43 

wily  enemy.  On  the  other  side,  the 
ichneumon  has  concurrently  developed 
quickness  of  movement  to  avoid  the  acid 
shower,  and  a  daring  in  attack,  together 
with  such  structural  details  as  sharp  claws 
for  holding  on  and  an  ovipositor  highly 
adapted  for  securely  placing  and  fixing 
its  eggs  upon  the  caterpillar. 

Should  the  larva  successfully  reach 
maturity,  it  then  prepares  for  the  next 
stage  of  its  existence.  Here,  again,  the 
precautions  it  takes  obviously  point  to 
much  persecution  in  the  past  history  of 
its  species.  The  larva  selects  a  suitable 
crevice  in  the  bark  of  a  tree,  into  which 
it  withdraws  itself.  It  then  proceeds  to 
spin  some  glutinous  threads  over  its 
body,  attaching  them  to  the  bark  on 
each  side,  afterwards  gradually  filling  up 
the  interstices.  While  doing  this  it  bites 
small  portions  from  the  bark  and  weaves 
them  into  the  substance  of  the  cocoon. 
When  complete  and  dry  the  caterpillar 
is  entirely  obscured  from  view,  and  as 
the  cocoon  dries  it  becomes  identical  in 
colour  with  the  bark,  looking  simply  like 
a  rugged  portion  of  it ;  also,  it  is  then 


44  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

as  hard  as  horn.  In  this  position  the 
developing  insect  spends  the  winter. 

This  mimicry  of  the  bark,  combined 
with  so  much  strength,  distinctly  indi- 
cates that  the  caterpillar  has  found  it 
necessary  to  hide  itself  from  the  eyes  of 
its  enemies,  and  even  then  to  put  on 
armour.  But  notwithstanding  all  this  self- 
protective  care,  cocoons  may  frequently 
be  found  torn  open  and  empty,  for  hungry 
tits  know  well  how  to  seek  out  such 
choice  morsels  as  the  cocoons  contain. 

Just  what  is  inside  is  shown  in  Figs. 
22  and  23.  Also  the  photographs  show 
how  strong  and  well-made  is  the  cocoon. 
The  chrysalis  is  produced  when  the  cater- 
pillar moults  its  last  skin  within  the 
cocoon.  The  thinnest  portion  of  the 
cocoon  is  that  part  where  the  future 
moth  will  emerge  the  following  summer. 

In  Plate  III.  two  cocoons  are  shown  in 
their  natural  position,  from  one  of  which 
the  moth  there  seen  has  just  emerged,  the 
cocoon  then  being  broken  open  to  reveal 
the  empty  chrysalis  skin  left  behind. 

In  the  ordinary  way  the  moth  makes 
its  appearance  from  quite  a  small  round 


22 


23 


22.  Cocoon  removed  from  the  bark  of  a  poplar  tree. 

23.  Internal  view  of  the  Cocoon,  showing  the  chrysalis. 

24.  Puss  Moth  resting  on  the  bark. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  45 

hole  near  the  top  of  the  cocoon,  the 
chrysalis  being  provided  with  a  kind  of 
cutting  tool  for  breaking  a  way  through 
the  weak  part.  When  the  moth  emerges 
from  the  chrysalis  it  secretes  a  fluid, 
which  moistens  and  softens  that  part  of 
the  cocoon  to  be  broken  open,  and  by  this 
means  it  is  enabled  to  make  its  way  out 
on  to  the  bark,  where  its  wings  develop. 
Shortly  afterwards  the  moth  appears  as 
shown  to  the  right  in  Plate  III.  and  in 
Fig.  24. 

Its  hairy  body  and  legs,  and  the 
peculiar  softness  of  its  greyish-white 
wings  streaked  with  black,  give  it  a 
handsome  appearance  as  it  rests  upon  the 
bark  until  nightfall,  when  it  will  take  to 
its  wings  and  find  a  mate. 

The  meaning  of  the  wavy  markings 
upon  its  wings  is  a  problem  that  remains 
to  be  solved.  These,  doubtless,  have 
some  significance  amidst  its  surround- 
ings, and  although  the  moth  is  conspic- 
uous to  us  as  it  appears  upon  the  bark, 
it  may  not  be  so  to  the  enemies  that 
attack  it  at  this  stage  of  its  development. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  more  con- 


46  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

spicuous  to  them  than  it  is  to  us,  and  its 
bold  display  may  be  a  warning  to  birds 
and  other  insectivorous  foes  that  it  has 
now  become  unpleasant  to  the  taste ;  for 
there  are  many  British  moths  of  a  white 
and  greyish  colour  streaked  with  black 
and  brown,  that  rest  with  exposed  wings 
upon  the  dark-coloured  bark  of  trees. 

The  moth  is  found  in  most  parts  of 
the  British,  Isles,  and  this  feature  shows 
how  far  the  extraordinary  developments 
in  its  caterpillar  stage  have  proved  success- 
ful ;  for  it  does  not  follow  that  a  highly 
.evolved  insect  is  necessarily  successful 
in  the  struggle  for  existence.  Such 
developments  only  show  how  keen  has 
been  its  struggle,  and  to  what  devices  it 
has  been  driven  to  hold  a  place  for  itself 
— sometimes  a  place  that  it  may  be 
hourly  losing. 


•T— r-r 


CHAPTER   IV 

THE   "DEATH    WATCH"   BEETLE 

(Anobium   domesticum) 

"  r  I  "HE  patient,  after  suffering  long,  had 
A  fallen  into  a  deep  sleep  ;  and  the 
nurse,  in  the  still  hours  of  the  night,  was, 
with  anxious  forebodings,  critically  watch- 
ing her  charge.  Intently  she  listened  to 
his  weak  and  irregular  breathing,  and, 
while  she  listened,  a  weird  ticking  com- 
menced. Five  gentle  but  distinct  taps — 
a  pause — five  more  taps,  but  this  time  from 
a  different  direction  ;  then  a  dead  silence. 
The  old  and  superstitious  nurse  hopelessly 
raised  her  hands  and  shook  her  head.  All 
now  was  of  no  avail.  It  was  a  '  warning ' ! 
She  had  heard  the  '  death  watch/ 
"  Two  hours  later  the  patient  died." 
Such  a  passage  as  this  was  common 
enough  in  the  pages  of  novels  not  very 
many  years  ago. 


48  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

In  earlier  days  the  "death  watch"  was 
heard  much  more  frequently  than  now ; 
indeed,  was  quite  a  popular  terror  amongst 
the  superstitious  and  ignorant,  who  be- 
lieved in  " omens,"  "warnings,"  and  such 
presages  of  future  events.  However,  like 
most  of  the  superstitious  fancies  of  by- 
gone days,  this  supposed  prophetic  and 
mysterious  "  augury,"  when  investigated 
with  ordinary  scientific  methods  of 
observation,  proves  to  be  entirely  fallacious 
and  a  delusion. 

The  "death  watch"  that  produces  the 
weird  tickings  formerly  so  much  feared  is 
nothing  more  or  less  than  a  mischievous 
and  destructive  little  beetle  madly  in  love 
and  very  desirous  of  finding  its  mate. 
Thus  is  the  fallacy  of  our  ancestors  regard- 
ing this  mystery  dispelled. 

Let  us  review  the  circumstances  more 
closely  and  endeavour  to  see  how  this 
erroneous  idea  came  to  have  such  a  hold. 

The  Death  Watch  Beetle  (Fig.  25)  is  a 
worker  in  wood.  Nearly  the  whole  of  its 
life  is  spent  hidden  amidst  the  woodwork 
of  old  houses,  or  old  furniture.  There  are 
few  houses,  indeed,  but  contain  some 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  49 

articles  upon  which  the  ravages  of  this 
most  destructive  insect  may  be  observed  ; 
such  articles  are  spoken  of  as  being 
"  worm  -  eaten."  Neatly  -  drilled,  round 
holes,  irregularly  scattered  over  some 
wooden  article,  giving  it  the  appearance  of 
having  been  riddled  by  fine  shot,  are  the 
outward  and  visible  signs  that  Anobium 
domesticum,  or  the  Death  Watch  Beetle, 
is  an  inmate  of  our  home,  and  warn  us 
that,  under  favourable  conditions,  its 
"  death-watch  "  tickings  may  be  heard. 

It  is  obvious  that  in  old  houses,  where 
wooden  rafters  and  panels  are  much  in 
evidence,  these  mischievous  insects  would 
be  more  abundant  than  in  modern  build- 
ings ;  hence  the  frequency  of  such  "  visita- 
tions "  in  olden  times.  Furthermore, 
superstitious  minds  are  far  more  prone  to 
explain  all  mysterious  occurrences  as  super- 
natural ''omens,"  or  "warnings,"  than  to 
seek  for  a  natural  cause,  and  so  simple  an 
explanation  as  a  tiny  beetle  being  the 
source  of  the  weird  tickings,  would  be 
regarded  as  absurd,  especially  as  the 
beetles  are  scarcely  ever  seen  away  from 
their  burrows  amidst  the  wood. 

4 


50  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

It  may  be  that  the  tickings  emanated 
from  the  very  chair  on  which  the  nurse 
attending  a  sick  patient  was  sitting,  or 
even  from  the  wooden  bedstead  on  which 
her  charge  was  resting.  In  Fig.  26  is 
shown  another  source  from  which  it  may 
have  originated.  The  illustration  shows 
part  of  the  edge  of  an  old  gilt  picture- 
frame  seen  from  behind,  with  its  signifi- 
cant perforations.  A  picture  bearing  such 
a  frame  might  hang  above  the  patient's 
head,  and  then,  in  the  stillness  of  the  sick 
chamber,  the  mysterious  tappings  would 
be  distinctly  heard. 

Near  the  centre  of  Fig.  27  one  of  the 
beetles  is  shown  natural  size,  and  one  may 
naturally  ask  how  so  small  an  insect  can 
tap  sufficiently  loud  to  be  heard  by  human 
ears.  As  already  explained,  the  ticking  is 
most  often  heard  at  night  and  in  a  sick 
room,  because  then,  owing  to  the  quietude 
and  suspense,  a  slight  noise  is  greatly  in- 
tensified. A  glance  at  Figs.  27  and  28  will 
throw  more  light  on  this  point. 

The  photographs  show  a  common 
wooden  gas-bracket  block  of  four  inches 
diameter.  The  front,  it  will  be  observed, 


27 


25.  The  "Death-watch"  Beetle — magnified  20  diameters. 

26.  Part  of  the  edge  of  a  picture-frame  attacked  by  the  "Death- 

watch." 

27.  A  wooden  gas-fitting  block  destroyed  by  the  "Death-watch" 

— one  of  the  beetles  is  shown  near  the  centre  at  natural  size. 

28.  The  front  of  the  same  block  showing  the  shot-like  perforations. 


WITH  PEN  AND    CAMERA  51 

bears  the  familiar  shot-like  perforations, 
and  the  sides  have  completely  crumbled 
away  as  yellow  dust  or  powder  in  the 
process  of  removing  it  from  the  wall  to 
which  it  was  attached.  On  the  back 
(Fig.  27)  the  wood  is  seen  to  be  penetrated 
in  all  directions  by  the  burrowings  of  the 
larvae  of  the  beetles  ;  for  it  is  in  their  early 
stages,  as  larvae,  while  feeding  on  the 
wood,  that  they  carry  on  their  destructive 
work. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  the  beetles  in 
the  block  would  be  surrounded  by  more 
or  less  hollow  tunnels,  and  that  these 
would  tend  to  increase  the  sound  of  their 
tappings  as  they  communicate  with  each 
other.  In  Fig.  25  one  of  these  beetles  is 
shown  magnified  twenty  diameters.  It 
should  be  observed  that  the  thorax,  or 
portion  of  the  body  next  the  head,  has 
developed  in  a  curious  fashion,  forming  a 
kind  of  horny  hood  which  covers  the 
beetle's  head.  In  making  its  tappings  the 
beetle  raises  itself  on  its  fore-legs,  tucks 
in  its  head,  and  then  brings  down  this 
horny  and  helmet-like  thorax  in  contact 
with  the  wood.  Thus  results  that  regular 


52  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

interval  between  the  beats  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  expression  "  death  watch." 
The  hollowed  and  cowl-like  thorax  may 
also  serve  to  increase  the  sound  that  it 
makes. 

In  this  manner  the  insect  is  enabled  to 
call  to  its  mate,  and  often,  after  its  four 
or  five  taps,  responding  taps  may  be  heard 
from  a  different  direction ;  and  as  the 
communications  sometimes  go  on  at  in- 
tervals until  the  couple  have  met,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  a  superstitious  nurse, 
sitting  alone  in  a  sick  chamber  and  hear- 
ing these  weird  noises  that  arise  without 
apparent  cause  and  come  from  all  direc- 
tions, should  be  scared.  The  ultimate 
death  of  the  patient  is,  under  such  circum- 
stances, of  course,  offered  as  culminating 
evidence  which  there  can  be  no  disputing. 

I  have  previously  stated  that  these 
insects  are  but  rarely  seen  away  from  their 
borings  amidst  the  wood.  However,  when 
the  wood  in  which  they  have  developed 
shows  signs  of  having  exhausted  its  re- 
sources for  providing  food  material  and 
shelter  for  the  rearing  of  the  young,  the 
old  beetles  make  their  way  out,  taking  to 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  53 

their  wings  at  night,  to  seek  more  favour- 
able quarters  ;  but  they  quickly  disappear 
from  view,  as  they  are  essentially  of 
nocturnal  habits  and  prefer  darkness  to 
light. 

It  is,  nevertheless,  an  easy  matter  to  see 
them  if  an  infested  article  of  furniture  can 
be  obtained.  All  that  need  be  done  is  to 
select  a  part  of  the  wood  where  the  holes 
are  not  too  numerous,  and  then  to  drop  a 
little  turpentine  into  a  few  of  the  holes 
here  and  there.  As  the  spirit  finds  its  way 
into  the  borings  and  is  absorbed  by  the 
dry  wood,  the  beetles  will  be  seen  making 
their  way  out  into  the  open  through  the 
holes  down  which  no  turpentine  has  been 
poured.  A  complete  immersion  in  tur- 
pentine will  kill  them  in  the  borings ; 
although  paraffin  would  prove  more 
effectual  for  this  purpose. 

It  is  also  interesting  to  observe  that  the 
moment  the  beetles  are  touched  they  imme- 
diately feign  death,  drawing  their  legs 
together  and  lying  on  their  backs,  or  in  any 
position  they  may  be,  and  remaining  per- 
fectly motionless,  often  for  five  minutes  or 
more.  This  is  a  defensive  feature  which 


54  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

they  share  with  many  other  classes  of  in- 
sects and  some  familiar  species  of  spiders. 
Probably  at  first  this  action  would  be  due 
to  paralysis  of  the  limbs  produced  by 
fright,  but  as  it  served  to  protect  them 
from  the  further  attacks  of  their  enemies 
the  movement  would  become  exaggerated 
and  evolve  into  a  defensive  habit. 

There  are  several  species  belonging  to 
this  genus  of  destructive  beetles  that  prey 
upon  household  furniture,  and  also  some 
nearly  related  kinds  with  similar  habits, 
but  the  species  here  considered  is  probably 
that  most  commonly  met  with.  In  view 
of  the  fact  that  even  the  smallest  of  living 
things  has  its  place  and  function  in  the 
natural  world,  the  question  may  be  asked  : 
What  good  purpose  can  these  household 
pests  serve  to  justify  their  existence. 

In  the  home  of  man,  where  they  destroy 
beams,  floors,  tables,  chairs,  cupboards, 
etc.,  they,  of  course,  cannot  serve  any  good 
purpose.  Nevertheless,  their  action  even 
when  engaged  on  such  destructive  work 
has  its  place  in  Nature's  economy.  As 
Darwin  has  so  vividly  shown,  long  before 
man  used  the  plough,  the  earth  was 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  55 

regularly  ploughed  by  earthworms,  the 
whole  soil  of  this  country  having  to  pass 
and  repass  through  the  bodies  of  these 
lowly-organised  creatures  every  few  years. 
A  similar  work  is  also  carried  on  by  the 
termites,  or  the  so-called  white  ants,  in 
Africa  and  other  places  where  earth  worms 
are  not  prolific ;  fallen  trees  and  broken 
and  decaying  branches  are  quickly  reduced 
to  dust  with  the  soil  excavated  from  the 
"  ants'  "  underground  galleries  ;  thus  they 
serve  as  natural  scavengers  and  fertilizers 
of  the  soil.  Likewise  with  submerged  and 
decaying  timber,  the  mollusc  known  as  the 
shipworm  eats  its  way  through  and  through 
such  woodwork  until  it  has  become  once 
more  converted  into  organic  material. 

So  it  is  with  the  Death  Watch  beetle. 
Our  chairs,  tables,  and  furniture  are 
nothing  more  than  dead  and  decaying 
organic  material ;  material,  too,  that  is  ever 
needed  in  the  organic  laboratory  for  the 
re-modelling  of  other  life  forms.  Nature 
is  the  theatre  of  incessant  change,  and 
the  existence  of  dead  and  decaying 
matter  is  strictly  prohibited  in  natural 
economy.  Although  we  may  for  a  time 


56  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

bar    the   doors    against    the  entrance    of 

natural   scavengers,    yet  it  is  but  for  the 

moment ;     immediately     the  doors     are 
opened  they  will  reappear. 


CHAPTER  V 

TREE-WASPS    AND   GROUND-WASPS 

(  Vespa  britannica  and  V.  vulgaris) 

EARLY  in  September  wasps  were  so 
abundant  that  they  became  a  veri- 
table plague.  In  the  house  they  appeared 
to  be  everywhere.  In  the  kitchen  area, 
when  cooking  was  in  progress,  they  became 
positively  dangerous.  Everything  sweet 
or  tasty  that  was  placed  upon  the  table 
was  immediately  surrounded  and  attacked, 
even  a  cloth  that  savoured  of  gravy  or 
fruit  juice,  if  laid  down  for  a  few  moments, 
became  a  source  of  danger  and  the  hand 
that  next  touched  it  risked  a  painful  sting. 
Some  few  particularly  enterprising  indi- 
viduals that  escaped  the  eye  of  the  cook 
have,  indeed,  quite  recently  reappeared 
amongst  certain  choice  preserves,  and 
although  all  danger  from  their  stings  was 
past,  yet  they  seemed  just  as  potent  to 
cause  a  scare  as  if  they  were  alive. 


57 


58  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Later  on,  at  the  end  of  the  month,  only 
an  occasional  wasp  caused  annoyance,  even 
in  the  kitchen.  In  early  October  a  few 
still  found  their  way  into  the  house,  but 
these  behaved  very  differently  from  the 
early  September  ones.  They  seemed  to 
have  no  hostile  intentions  regarding  the 
cook  or  even  her  commodities  ;  their  object 
in  life  appeared  confined  to  a  careful 
scrutiny  of  the  window  frames,  the  open- 
ings where  the  sash-ropes  worked  being 
especially  attractive  to  them.  Also  the 
folds  in  the  curtains  round  the  windows 
offered  a  further  attraction  for  these 
October  wasps  ;  so  pleased  were  they  with 
these  quarters  that  they  would  often  stay 
there  for  days  together — until,  indeed,  there 
came  a  cry  of  "  Another  wasp  !  "  after  which 
their  career  was  brief. 

At  the  end  of  October  wasps  had  become 
almost  entirely  forgotten,  when  (doubtless 
in  a  moment  of  inspiration)  the  cook, 
obsessed  by  the  wasp  topic,  suddenly 
propounded  the  question  :  "  Where  have 
all  the  wasps  gone  ? "  For  a  time  there 
was  silence.  Then  the  suggestion  came 
that  the  cold  had  killed  them  all.  Every- 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  59 

one  seemed  satisfied  with  this  answer  until 
the  cook  (who  only  on  very  rare  occasions 
thinks  with  a  scientific  mind)  further  re- 
marked :  "If  that  is  so,  where  do  the  first 
wasps  of  summer  come  from  ? "  That 
question  presented  a  stumbling  block,  and 
the  discussion  consequently  became  con- 
fused and  was  left  in  a  very  hazy  and 
unsatisfactory  state. 

Around  the  two  questions  propounded 
by  the  cook  there  hangs  a  tale — a  story 
wonderful  and  marvellous,  though  its 
interest  centres  on  facts  and  not  on 
fiction. 

The  October  wasp  that  hides  in  the 
curtain  in  a  warm  room  is  one  of  the 
marvels  of  creation.  It  is  a  queen  wasp. 
Queen  in  name  only,  for  there  is  probably 
no  animal  on  the  earth  that  works  harder 
or  is  able  to  perform  so  many  and  such 
varied  kinds  of  labour,  and  withal  carry 
on  her  work  with  such  devoted  energy. 

In  the  early  stages  of  the  wasp  city  there 
are  only  two  kinds  of  individuals.  There 
is  first  the  queen,  which  is  the  only 
perfect  female  of  the  community.  Then 
appear  the  numerous  workers,  or  neuters, 


6o  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 


which  are  really  imperfect  or  undeveloped 
females.  At  a  much  later  stage  other 
queens  appear,  and  finally  the  males  or 
drones.  In  Fig.  29  the  three  classes  of 
individuals  are  shown.  The  males  may  be 
distinguished  by  their  slim  bodies  and  their 
longer  antennae,  or  feelers  ;  the  queens  by 
their  large  size ;  and  the  workers  are  the 
smaller  active  wasps  seen  everywhere 
during  the  summer  and  autumn  months. 
It  is  rare  that  the  original  queen  is  seen 
after  the  worker  wasps  appear  ;  her  duties 
then  confine  her  within  the  walls  of  the 
city  of  which  she  was  the  foundress. 

How  comes  it,  though,  that  the  late 
wasp  must  always  be  a  queen  ?  Why  may 
it  not  be  a  worker,  or  even  a  drone  ?  Well, 
the  so-called  "  nest "  of  wasps — which  is 
really  a  wasp  city  with  several  thousand 
inhabitants — is  only  a  very  frail  structure  ; 
indeed,  it  is  built  ol  paper.  In  the  process 
of  manufacture  the  pulp  from  which  the 
wasp-paper  is  made  has  to  be  moistened 
and  kneaded,  and,  as  the  numerous  workers 
employed  are  continually  adding  their  con- 
tributions, the  combs  hang  heavy.  Conse- 
quently, their  growth  is  necessarily  limited, 


2<).  Three  species  of  Wasps — in  the  top  row  are  the  males,  in  the 
middle  row  the  queens  cr  females,  and  lowermost  the 
workers. 

30.  The  Queen  Wasp  tearing  off  fibres  of  wood. 

31.  A  nest  of  the  Tree-wasp  with  two  entrances. 

32.  Section  of  nest  of  Tree-wasp,  showing  the  first  comb. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  61 

since  the  safety  of  the  structure  has  also 
to  be  considered.  Hence  it  follows  that, 
the  more  the  wasp  city  thrives,  the  greater 
the  vitality  of  the  swarm,  and  the  larger 
its  combs  become,  so  the  end  and 
destruction  of  the  fabric  are  hastened. 

Just  as  the  community  has  reached  the 
zenith  of  its  glory  and  is  most  flourishing 
some  strange  things  happen  within  the 
city,  and  afterwards  everything  seems  to 
go  wrong,  and  the  end  speedily  comes. 
The  diligent  and  persistent  workers  seem 
all  at  once  to  realize  that  more  work  on 
their  part  is  useless,  and  then  to  lose 
heart  and  purpose  in  life.  Some  of  them 
simply  cling  to  the  cells  on  which  they 
have  laboured  so  long,  and  there  starve. 
Others  (probably  the  younger  ones)  wander 
away  from  their  home  to  return  no  more. 
Guided  by  their  keen  sense  of  smell,  many 
of  these  discover  the  nearest  warm  kitchen 
where  savoury  foods  are  being  prepared, 
and  there  they  become  freebooters  and  give 
themselves  over  to  orgy  ;  for  now  they  have 
no  longer  need  to  carry  food  to  the  nursery 
for  the  developing  grubs.  They  appear 
to  be  ravenously  hungry  and  attack 


62  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

almost  every  kind  of  sweet  or  meat 
food  that  appears,  although  their  habit  of 
pouncing  upon  flies  and  carrying  them  off 
is  no  longer  indulged  in. 

Their  orgy,  however  it  may  revive  their 
spirits,  does  them  but  little  good,  even 
though  they  may  escape  from  the  kitchen — 
for  their  hour  has  come.  As  night  ap- 
proaches cold,  or  perhaps  frost,  overtakes 
them ;  for  their  home  is  no  longer  a 
home  for  them.  So  they  rest  beneath  a 
leaf  or  in  some  similar  situation  and  there 
become  chilled  and  numbed.  Next  day 
the  warm  sun  may  revive  them  for  an 
hour  or  two,  but  later  on  it  comes  cold 
again,  and  so  they  may  linger  on  for  a 
day  or  two,  ill-tempered  and  always  ready 
to  sting  at  the  slightest  provocation,  until 
at  last  an  extra  chill  spells  their  doom. 
Such  is  the  normal  end  of  the  worker  or 
neuter  wasp,  after  its  several  weeks  of 
laborious  life. 

The  lordly  and  lazy  male  wasps  fare 
much  the  same,  although  they  succumb  to 
cold  and  wet  much  more  readily  than  the 
hardy  little  workers.  Probably,  too,  the 
exhausted  queen  meets  the  same  end.  I 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  63 

have,  however,  previously  stated  that  young 
queens  are  produced  later  in  the  year.  This 
event  occurs  when  the  fabric  of  the  city  has 
reached  such  proportions  as  impose  a 
limit  to  any  further  expansions,  having 
regard  to  the  safety  of  so  fragile  a  building 
in  a  precarious  and  uncertain  climate. 
It  may  be  climatic  warnings  that  first 
awaken  the  workers  to  the  fact  that  the 
edifice  on  which  they  have  laboured  is 
becoming  unstable. 

How  the  young  queens  come  into  being 
is  difficult  to  understand.  All  through 
the  early  part  of  the  season  the  eggs  de- 
posited in  the  cells  by  the  queen  produce 
the  grubs  of  common  workers,  but  almost 
as  soon  as  chilly  nights  make  themselves 
felt  some  special  large  cells  begin  to  appear 
(some  of  these  may  be  seen  in  centre  of 
Fig.  36  and  also  in  the  lowest  tier  of 
Plate  IV.),  and  from  these  develop  the 
queens  of  future  colonies.  Whether  the 
queen  deposits  a  different  kind  of  egg, 
or  whether  the  difference  is  brought  about 
by  special  feeding  of  the  grubs  by  the 
workers,  is  a  debatable  question. 

Almost   contemporary   with    the  advent 


64  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

of  these  queens,  other  special  cells  begin 
to  produce  males.  When,  in  this  way, 
the  sexes  have  appeared,  those  strange 
happenings  to  which  I  have  previously 
referred  then  take  place. 

Suddenly  all  the  machinery  of  the  city 
stops,  as  it  were.  The  builders  of  the 
cells  give  up  work ;  the  busy  workers 
that  return  laden  with  material  to  build 
new  cells,  or  with  food  for  the  develop- 
ing grubs,  seem  to  become  stupefied 
and  inactive.  Even  those  wasps  that 
remain  active  seemed  to  lose  all  their 
orderly  movement  and  to  be  continually 
in  the  way  of  each  other ;  in  fact,  con- 
fusion has  taken  the  place  of  orderliness 
throughout  the  whole  city. 

Amongst  the  combs,  around  which  the 
stupefied  worker-wasps  are  continually  con- 
gregating, numerous  slim-bodied  wasps 
suddenly  become  extremely  busy.  These 
are  conspicuous  on  account  of  their  long 
antennae,  or  feelers,  which  are  continually 
quivering  in  a  very  excited  manner. 
They  are  the  prospective  bridegrooms 
for  the  young  queens.  From  careful 
observation,  I  am  inclined  to  think  that 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  65 

their  mates  are  selected  within  the  nest, 
and  that  then  they  leave  their  home 
together  never  to  return.  However,  the 
honeymoon  appears  to  be  spent  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood  of  the  nest.  In 
the  case  of  a  tree-wasp  I  observed  no 
fewer  than  six  young  queens  accompanied 
by  their  male  suitors  within  the  space  of 
a  yard  on  the  ground  beneath  the  nest. 
Some  of  these  I  returned  to  the  nest,  but 
they  immediately  left  it  again  ;  strange  to 
say,  also,  they  seemed  to  possess  the 
power  of  finding  each  other  again  when 
separated. 

When  the  queens  and  males  have  left 
the  nest,  some  of  the  more  active  workers 
appear  to  become  strangely  possessed  ; 
they  seem,  indeed,  to  have  gone  mad. 
Instead  of  tending  and  feeding  the  young 
grubs  with  that  jealous  care  so  charac- 
teristic of  them,  they  now  commence  to 
undo  their  work  in  an  extraordinary 
manner.  The  developing  larvae  are  set 
upon,  dragged  from  their  cells,  and  carried 
outside  the  nest,  where  they  are  left  to 
perish  on  the  ground. 

The  significance  of  this  proceeding  pre- 

5 


66  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

sents  a  problem  to  which  no  satisfactory 
answer  has,  to  my  knowledge,  as  yet 
been  advanced.  On  the  face  of  it,  it 
appears  that  the  workers  realize  that  they 
will  not  be  able  to  rear  their  charges,  and 
so,  rather  than  let  them  slowly  starve 
within  the  nest,  they  mercifully  remove 
them  outside,  where  they  will  quickly  die. 
However,  a  little  study  of  the  actions  and 
habits  of  wasps  scarcely  encourages  one 
to  credit  them  with  so  much  forethought ; 
indeed,  one  soon  discovers  that  their  move- 
ments are  most  automatic. 

To  explain  the  matter,  one  has  to  ask  : 
What  benefit  does  the  wasp  community 
derive  from  this  strange  behaviour  ?  It 
may  be  said  that  an  instinctive  impulse 
to  clear  the  nest  of  decaying  matter  guides 
them  to  remove  the  starving  grubs,  but  then 
comes  the  question  :  Why  should  they  clear 
a  nest  which  they  are  then  deserting  ? 

There  is  only  one  way,  I  think,  in 
which  the  economy  of  the  wasp  race  can 
benefit  by  this  action,  and  therein  lies  a 
probable  explanation  of  the  extraordinary 
conduct  of  the  workers  during  their  last 
hours  within  the  nest. 


33-    Larva?  above  and  pupae  below — removed  from  their  cells. 

34.  Cells  containing  larvae  and  the  closed  ones  pupae  :   some  of 

the  fully-developed  Wasps  are  seen  biting  their  way  out, 
while  one  has  almost  emerged. 

35.  Cells  with  larvae,  pupae  and  eggs,  together  with  a  Worker 

Wasp  that  has  just  emerged. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  67 

No  matter  how  late  in  the  season  it  is 
when  the  wasp  community  disperses,  there 
are  always  signs  that  the  wasps  were 
till  then  still  extending  the  structure  of 
the  nest.  Empty  cells  are  always  ready 
slightly  in  advance  of  those  which  con- 
tain eggs.  Also,  when  the  end  comes, 
some  of  the  cells  always  contain  larvae 
and  pupae.  The  city  seems  to  have 
suddenly  come  to  a  dead  stop  in  the 
midst  of  its  development. 

It  follows  that  the  tiny  larva  that 
hatch  from  the  eggs  would  soon  perish. 
The  fat  and  half  developed  larvae  would, 
however,  decay  in  the  cells.  If  this 
happened,  the  undeveloped  pupae  in  the 
closed  cells  (which  would  be  most  probably 
queen  or  male  individuals,  and  therefore 
important  to  the  community)  would,  as 
they  matured  in  the  deserted  nest,  emerge 
amidst  most  unhealthy  surroundings. 
The  workers,  therefore,  as  a  last  labour 
for  their  race,  instinctively  remove  the 
grubs,  which  can  never  mature  in  the 
nest,  for  the  benefit  of  the  developing 
pupae  of  the  males  and  queens,  which, 
may  mature.  Furthermore,  if  the  grubs 


68  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

were  left  to  decay,  the  result  would  be 
to  attract  such  enemies  into  the  nest 
as  would  probably  be  injurious  to  the 
pupae  that  remained.  That,  I  think,  is 
the  true  explanation  of  the  apparently 
wonderful  forethought  on  the  part  of  the 
worker-wasps. 

When  the  work  of  removing  the  grubs 
from  the  cells  is  finished  the  worker-wasps 
then  forsake  their  home,  or  a  few  may 
idle  about  its  vicinity  until  cold  or  wet 
overtakes  them.  A  few  late  queens  or 
males  may  afterwards  develop  in  the  nest, 
but  they  quickly  leave  it ;  and  then,  while 
the  structure  holds  together,  it  becomes 
a  prey  to  all  sorts  of  animals — snails, 
slugs,  earwigs,  flies,  beetles,  woodlice,  etc. 

By  that  time,  the  mating  of  the  queens 
has  taken  place,  and,  like  the  workers, 
the  male  wasps  have  also  perished.  Out 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  wrecked  city 
none  now  remain  except  the  young  queens. 
These  are  the  only  individuals  destined 
to  live  over  the  winter.  Not  all  of  them, 
by  any  means,  will  survive  to  become  the 
mothers  of  a  vast  generation  in  the  future  ; 
nevertheless,  a  few  will  maintain  the  race. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  69 

In  the  ordinary  way  the  fortunate  queen 
will  shelter  in  some  crevice  in  a  stone 
wall,  under  the  bark  of  a  tree,  or,  not 
infrequently,  in  the  fittings  of  a  window 
frame,  to  which  I  have  previously  referred. 
If  left  undisturbed,  the  folds  of  a  curtain 
in  a  not  too  warm  room  provide  a 
favourite  spot ;  but  as  I  have  already 
hinted,  that  selection  is  positively  danger- 
ous for  the  wasp  community.  In  some 
such  situations  then,  clinging  firmly  by 
her  legs,  and  often  holding  by  her  strong 
jaws,  the  queen  sleeps  away  the  winter 
months. 

Some  bright  day  at  the  end  of  April 
the  dormant  queen  awakes  and  crawls 
sleepily  out  into  the  sunlight.  Her  first 
thought  is  her  toilet.  Her  wings,  body, 
antennae  and  face  are  briskly  brushed  by 
means  of  her  bristly  legs ;  and  then, 
having  removed  all  dust  and  dirt  from 
her  limbs,  she  takes  to  her  wings.  She 
has  not  travelled  far,  perhaps,  before  she 
alights  and  carefully  investigates  an  old 
tree  stump ;  but  she  is  soon  off  again. 
Then  the  corner  of  the  roof  of  a  thatched 
cottage  occupies  her  attention  for  a  few 


70  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

minutes,  and  afterwards  a  hawthorn  and 
holly  hedge.  In  the  latter  place  she  was 
occupied  for  the  rest  of  that  day  and  for 
many  days  that  follow.  In  short,  this 
queen  had  discovered  a  suitable  site  on 
which  to  commence  operations  for  the 
building  of  a  new  wasp  city. 

Afterwards,  you  can  almost  always  find 
her  round  that  particular  part  of  the 
hedge.  It  is  her  custom,  however,  to 
make  little  flying  journeys  between  the 
hedge  and  a  dry  tree-stump  in  the  field 
close  by.  From  this  stump,  by  means 
of  her  strong  jaws,  she  will  tear  off 
fibres  of  the  wood  (Fig.  30)  and  then 
carry  them  back  to  her  building  site 
amongst  the  holly  leaves.  After  masti- 
cating the  fibres  into  a  pulp  she  will 
then  plaster  it  to  a  branch,  and  so  she 
continues  until  a  short  suspended  pillar 
is  formed.  More  pulp  is  then  applied 
to  this  footstalk  (or  rather  headstalk,  for 
the  wasp,  unlike  man,  commences  to 
build  the  uppermost  story  of  her  house 
first),  in  the  form  of  a  little  cap,  and 
under  this  four  small  cells,  with  their 
mouths  opening  downwards,  are  placed, 


• 


NEST    OF    A    TREE-WASP    IN    A    HOLLY    AND     HAWTHORN 

HEDGE. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  71 

these  also  being  formed  of  the  same 
material. 

Such  is  the  beginning  of  the  nest,  and 
immediately  the  four  cells  are  formed  eggs 
are  deposited  in  them.  Outside  these  cells 
others  are  soon  added,  and,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  new  layers  of  paper,  the  cap-like 
covering  is  extended  to  cover  these,  and 
to  fall  below,  the  edges  of  the  covering 
layers  then  being  joined  beneath,  so  that 
the  comb  is  completely  hidden  from  view, 
a  single  round  opening  being  left  as 
entrance  to  the  nest  (Fig.  31).  In  Fig. 
32  an  example  of  a  nest  at  this  stage  is 
shown  in  section,  where  the  first  comb 
will  be  seen  suspended  inside. 

The  eggs  that  were  first  deposited  then 
begin  to  hatch  out  their  grubs,  and  these 
have  to  be  fed  on  chopped  insects  and 
vegetable  food.  So  the  wasp-mother's 
labours  increase,  but  still  she  perseveres 
and  keeps  pace  with  the  work.  As  the 
larvae  grow,  she  has  to  increase  the  height 
of  the  walls  of  their  cells  to  accommodate 
them.  At  last,  however,  those  larvae  that 
hatched  first  become  full-fed  and  proceed 
themselves  to  spin  a  silken  cocoon  within 


72  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  cell,  closing  the  latter  with  a  cap 
of  the  same  material,  and  in  which  they 
change  into  pupae  (Fig.  33).  Ten  days 
later,  or  thereabouts,  from  these  cells 
emerge  the  first  worker-wasps. 

The  wasp  city  then  grows  apace,  new 
workers  continually  emerging — Figs.  34 
and  35.  These  worker-wasps  are  soon 
ready  and  willing  assistants  of  their 
mother,  and  are  just  as  capable  as  she  in 
paper-making  and  in  the  building  of  cells. 
Later  on,  the  time  of  the  queen  mother 
is  entirely  occupied  in  depositing  eggs  in 
the  cells  made  by  the  workers.  The  latter 
not  only  extend  the  cells  and  walls  of 
the  city,  but  also  collect  food  for  the 
young,  tending  and  feeding  them  with 
motherly  instinct.  Sometimes,  too,  in  the 
case  of  the  loss  of  the  queen,  they  will  also 
deposit  eggs ;  but  these  only  produce 
male  brood,  and,  consequently,  without 
the  queen  the  swarm  eventually  fails,  and 
the  nest  is  deserted. 

In  due  course,  the  workers  suspend  a 
second  comb,  or  terrace,  by  short  pillars 
from  the  first  one,  and  finally  several  others, 
each  being  attached  to  the  one  immediately 


37 


36.  Nest  of  Tree- wasp  with  outer  covering  removed. 

be  seen  in  some  of  the  lower  cells. 

37.  The  above  nest  viewed  from  beneath. 


Eggs  can 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  73 

above  it ;  and  so  the  nest  increases  in 
size  until  it  becomes  externally  like  that 
shown  in  Plate  V,  and  internally  as  seen 
in  Figs.  36  and  37.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  larvae  in  the  cells  are  suspended 
upside  down,  and  that  the  worker-wasps 
tend  them  in  that  position,  as  shown  in 
Plate  IV.  Everything  in  waspland  is 
topsy-turvy,  from  the  very  moment  when 
the  queen  commences  to  build  her  home 
until  its  dissolution  after  the  advent  of 
the  males  and  the  young  queens. 

Such  is  the  method  adopted  in  building 
the  several  species  of  British  tree-wasps 
and  ground-wasps.  The  common  wasp, 
so  familiar  in  summer-time,  in  its  nest 
beneath  the  ground  (Fig.  38),  often  extends 
its  combs  to  much  larger  dimensions  than 
the  tree- wasps.  In  Fig.  39  a  comb  is 
shown  containing  over  4,000  cells,  and 
this  comb  was  the  largest  of  ten.  In  this 
nest  there  would  be,  at  the  lowest  estimate, 
20,000  cells,  and  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  worker-cells  are  sometimes  used 
two  and  three  times  over  for  the  rearing  ot 
larvae.  With  these  facts  in  mind  one 
may  readily  understand  why  fruit-growers 


74  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

advocate  the  killing  of  the  queen  wasps 
that  may  be  seen  at  any  time  from  October 
to  May,  for  each  one  that  lives  may  be- 
come the  parent  of  a  vast  community  by 
the  autumn. 

To  distinguish  between  the  six  different 
kinds  of  British  social  wasps  requires  an 
expert ;  the  nests  of  the  several  species, 
however,  differ  somewhat  in  their  external 
covering.  Three  species  are  illustrated  in 
Fig.  29,  the  central  one  of  which  is  the 
common  ground-wasp,  and  the  rows  on  the 
right  and  left  are  two  of  the  commonest 
species  of  tree-wasps.  In  Fig.  40  is  shown 
a  sample  of  the  paper  manufactured  by 
each  of  these  three  species.  The  texture 
of  each  is  seen  to  differ,  but  in  all  appear 
the  tiny  bands  of  varying  colours  showing 
where  additional  material  was  added  by 
the  numerous  workers.  In  the  central 
example  of  the  common  wasp  the  paper 
is  seen  to  be  formed  in  shell-like  patches, 
while  the  tree-wasps  make  theirs  in  more 
or  less  continuous  bands. 

In  concluding  this  brief  outline  of  wasp 
life,  I  may  add  that,  from  what  has  been 
written  here,  it  will  be  obvious  that  the 


38.    Xest  of  Common  Wasp  beneath  the  ground,  with  covering 

walls  broken  open. 
30.    A   comb   from   the   nest   of   the    Common   Wasp,   containing 

4,000  cells.      Its  size  may  be  appreciated  by  observing  the 

postage  stamp  placed  in  its  centre,  which  has  been  reduced 

proportionately  in  photographing. 
40.    Three  samples  of  Wasp-paper. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  75 

discovery  of  a  wasp  in  winter  is  nothing 
unusual,  because  such  a  wasp  will  be  an 
hibernating  queen.  Also,  though  one's 
sympathy  may  lean  towards  the  wasps 
in  the  hour  when  the  wonderful  fabric 
of  the  queen  and  her  labourers  becomes 
doomed  to  be  wrecked,  yet  we  may  ask : 
What  if  it  were  not  so  ?  What  if  the 
workers  lived  through  the  winter  and 
commenced  their  work  early  in  spring  to- 
gether with  their  guiding  queen  mother? 
What,  indeed  !  By  autumn  there  would 
be  a  plague  upon  the  land,  and  wasps 
would  be  reigning  supreme. 


CHAPTER  VI 

THE  LIFE-STORY  OF  A  HOVER-FLY 

(Catabomba  pyrastri) 

WE  have  already  seen  in  the  case  of 
the  Lacewing  Fly  that  not  all  the 
insects  we  find  in  the  garden  must  be 
regarded  as  enemies.  To  distinguish  be- 
tween our  insect  friends  and  foes,  how- 
ever, is  not  an  easy  task.  The  average 
gardener  kills  indiscriminately  when 
insects  cross  his  path,  especially  if  they 
happen  to  assume  a  grub-like  form.  Never- 
theless, a  little  time  devoted  to  discrimina- 
tion between  them,  would  be  time  well 
spent,  for  his  wholesale  killing  often  results 
in  the  destruction  of  his  greatest  friends  ; 
indeed,  he  often  kills  much  better  killers 
than  himself. 

My  friend  the  Hover-fly  has  perfectly 
protected  my  sweet-peas  from  the  ravages 
of  the  "  green-flies  "  or  "  blight "  during  the 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  77 

past  summer,  for  like  the  Lacewing  Fly, 
its  mission  in  life  is  to  deal  death  and 
destruction  amongst  the  aphides,  and  con- 
sequently it  is  an  insect  which  everyone 
who  owns  a  garden  ought  to  know. 

Although  at  first  the  green-flies  existed 
in  more  than  usual  abundance,  and  their 
attacks  were  even  more  persistent  than 
ever,  yet  this  particular  species  of  Hover- 
fly,  together  with  its  near  relatives,  acted 
so  promptly,  and  supervized  things  so 
thoroughly,  that,  later  on,  I  could  scarcely 
find  a  single  green-fly. 

It  happened  like  this.  By  the  side  of 
my  sweet-peas  there  was  a  bed  of  mint 
which  quickly  produced  its  flowers.  Now 
of  all  things  in  the  garden  on  which 
Hover-flies  love  to  feast,  probably  mint 
flowers  stand  first.  So  these  black-and- 
pale-yellow-banded  flies  came  in  large 
numbers  to  the  banquet,  poising  them- 
selves above  the  flowers  in  their  charac- 
teristic manner,  held  there  by  the  rapid 
vibrations  of  their  wings,  and  then  sud- 
denly swooping  down  in  hawk-like  fashion 
to  feast  as  opportunity  occurred. 

There    was    merry-making     and     love- 


78  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

making  amongst  them  during  every  hour 
of  sunlight ;  in  due  course,  too,  there  was 
marriage,  and  also  families.  It  was  then 
that  my  sweet-peas  had  become  badly 
attacked  with  the  "green  blight,"  which, 
like  the  Hover-flies,  were  thriving  apace 
during  the  hot  weather.  It  was  then, 
too,  that  some  of  the  female  Hover-flies 
became  deeply  interested  in  my  sweet- 
peas. 

Day  after  day  they  were  hovering  before 
the  flowers  and  leaves,  alighting  upon 
them  and  carefully  searching  them  over. 
The  moment  they  met  with  a  green-fly, 
they  would  deposit  one  of  their  eggs  near 
to  it,  and  then  fly  to  another  flower  or 
leaf  for  the  same  purpose. 

Now,  as  everyone  who  has  tried  to 
cultivate  plants  will  know  well,  green-flies 
possess  extraordinary  powers  of  reproduc- 
tion. A  single  green-fly  will  bud  out 
twenty  or  more  young  in  one  day,  and 
these  are  all  females,  which  quickly 
develop  to  maturity,  and  are  at  once  able 
to  produce  young  in  the  same  manner  as 
their  parent,  and  which  are  again  all 
females.  Also,  this  budding  process  of 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  79 

reproduction  continues  for  twenty  or  more 
generations  during  the  summer  months 
without  any  males  appearing.  Males  are 
eventually  forthcoming  in  the  late  autumn 
broods,  and  after  their  appearance  eggs 
are  produced  instead  of  living  young. 
When  winter  has  passed,  these  eggs  pro- 
vide the  first  brood  of  budding  females. 

It  is  obvious,  then,  that  every  "  green- 
fly "  seen  during  the  spring  and  summer 
months  can  become  a  mother,  and  I  have 
previously  referred  to  Reaumur's  estimate, 
that  a  single  green-fly  may  be  progenitor 
to  no  fewer  than  5,904,900,000  individuals 
during  the  two  or  three  weeks  of  its  life. 

The  mother  Hover-fly  seems  fully  ac- 
quainted with  this  state  of  things,  for  the 
moment  that  she  detects  a  green-fly  on  a 
leaf  or  stem,  she  is  content  to  place  an 
egg  there ;  probably  she  is  instinctively 
satisfied  that  the  sight  of  a  green-fly  is  a 
sufficient  guarantee  that  ample  provision 
will  be  forthcoming  to  give  her  offspring 
a  good  start  in  life. 

In  Fig.  41  the  egg  is  shown  as  placed 
by  the  parent  insect  amongst  the  green- 
flies, and  more  in  detail  in  Fig.  42.  Three 


8o  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

days  later  a  tiny,  yellowish-white  grub 
(Fig.  43)  emerges  from  the  egg,  which  when 
fully  extended  is  not  more  than  one-six- 
teenth of  an  inch  in  length  ;  but  its 
courage  and  strength  are  as  marvellous 
as  its  voracity. 

The  grub  under  observation,  when 
hatched,  travelled  down  the  stem  until  it 
came  to  a  leaf,  on  whose  surface  it  met 
with  its  first  green-fly.  One  of  the  legs 
of  the  latter  touched  the  grub  as  it  moved 
towards  it.  Instantly  the  grub  thrust  its 
head  forward,  and  a  moment  later  it  was 
standing  upright  on  the  tail-end  of  its 
body  with  the  green-fly  elevated  in  the 
air — a  magnified  photograph  of  the  actual 
incident  is  shown  in  Fig.  44. 

In  this  attitude  the  little  grub  held  the 
green-fly  for  over  an  hour  while  it  sucked  its 
juices,  and  this  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  its 
victim  was  much  larger  than  itself  and 
continually  struggling  to  escape.  It  then 
cast  away  the  empty  skin  of  the  green-fly 
and  rested  for  a  while.  During  the 
first  day  of  its  existence  it  captured 
and  ate  two  half-grown  green-flies  and  two 
smaller  ones ;  and  day  by  day,  for  ten 


Bud  of  sweet-pea  with  Green-flies  and  egg  of  a  Hover-fly 

upon  it. 

An  enlarged  view  of  the  egg. 
The    grub    of    the    Hover-fly    photographed    soon    after    its 

emergence  from  the  egg— magnified. 
The  young  grub  on  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  sucking  the  juices 

of  its  captured  Green-fly — magnified  12  diameters. 


WITH  PEN  AND    CAMERA  81 

days,  its  appetite  increased  in  an  astonish- 
ing manner. 

It  grew  rapidly,  and  by  the  end  of  the 
second  day  had  become  quite  an  expert 
in  manipulating  green-flies  (Fig.  45).  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  grub  is 
blind  ;  it  finds  its  prey  by  rapidly  thrusting 
its  head  here,  there,  and  everywhere  as  it 
travels.  Sooner  or  later  its  nose  comes 
in  contact  with  a  victim,  when  a  three- 
pronged  fork,  or  trident,  at  its  mouth 
is  immediately  thrust  into  the  green- 
flies body ;  so  it  is  elevated  into  the 
air. 

The  method  of  feeding  of  the  full-grown 
grub  is  clearly  shown  in  Figs.  46-49. 
The  grub  is  of  a  green  colour,  with  a  white 
stripe  down  the  centre  of  its  back,  which 
is  tinged  with  purple  at  the  base.  When 
hungry,  after  searching  for  prey,  these 
grubs  are  very  ravenous,  consuming  green- 
flies at  the  rate  of  more  than  one  per 
minute.  As  they  feed  during  the  night 
as  well  as  the  day,  the  enormous  amount 
of  destruction  they  work  amongst  these 
garden  pests  is  incalculable ;  indeed,  man's 
insecticides  and  fumigating  devices 


82  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

scarcely     count     against     the     persistent 
onslaughts  of  these  grubs. 

The  grub's  method  of  locomotion  is 
curious.  It  is  not  provided  with  feet,  but 
adheres  to  the  leaves  by  means  of  the 
rough  edges  of  the  skin  at  the  sides  of 
its  body.  It,  consequently,  has  some 
difficulties  to  overcome  when  on  the 
move ;  nevertheless,  it  travels  at  a  re- 
markable pace. 

It  stretches  out  its  head — which  is  little 
more  than  a  tapering  proboscis  bearing 
at  its  apex  the  trident  previously  referred 
to — as  far  as  it  can  reach,  then  grips 
the  leaf  by  means  of  its  trident  and 
immediately  draws  up  its  hinder  parts 
until  its  tail-end  almost  touches  its  nose — 
appearing  as  if  it  were  about  to  turn  a 
somersault.  Just  as  you  expect  to  see  it 
perform  that  movement,  however,  its  head 
is  suddenly  thrust  forward  again ;  so  it 
moves  along  in  this  loop-by-loop  fashion. 
Also,  it  always  appears  to  be  in  a  big 
hurry,  both  when  travelling  and  in 
making  its  thrusts  around  in  search  of 
prey. 

Many   kinds    of    these    grubs    may   be 


45 


46 


47 


48 


45-    The  grub  when  two  days  old,  with  a  Green-fly  larger  than 
itself — magnified  2  diameters. 

46.  A  full-grown  grub  spears  a  Green-fly. 

47.  Elevating  it  into  the  air. 

48.  Extending  its  body — see  49. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  83 

found  amongst  the  leaves  of  garden  and 
field  plants,  some  of  which  are  of  a 
whitish-yellow  colour,  while  others  are 
marked  with  pale  brown.  These  are  the 
larvae  of  the  smaller  species  of  Hover-flies, 
and  their  habits  are  much  the  same  as 
the  species  here  described,  which  may  be 
readily  identified  by  its  green  and  white 
colouring  and  its  larger  size. 

At  the  end  of  the  ten  days'  feeding 
period,  the  grub's  enormous  appetite 
declines,  and  it  attaches  itself  to  a  leaf  or 
stem  by  the  trident  at  its  mouth.  There 
it  hangs  for  another  ten  or  eleven  days, 
its  skin  hardening  and  becoming  of  a 
golden  brown  colour  (Fig.  50).  After  that 
time  has  passed,  this  pupa  or  chrysalis 
is  suddenly  burst  open,  and  we  find  that 
the  voracious  grub  has  been  transformed 
into  a  shining  black-and-yellow-banded 
Hover-fly  (Figs.  51  and  52). 

It  is  obvious  that  the  Hover-flies  are 
amongst  the  gardener's  most  valuable 
allies.  When  we  recognize  the  enormous 
rate  of  increase  of  which  the  green-flies  are 
capable,  together  with  the  knowledge  that, 
if  their  multiplication  remained  unchecked, 


84  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

every  green  plant  or  tree  on  the  surface  of 
the  earth  would  soon  become  converted 
into  living  green-flies,  and  that,  in 
consequence,  the  food  supplies  of  all 
terrestrial  animals  would  quickly  ter- 
minate, we  can  only  marvel  at  the 
efficiency  of  Nature's  sentinels  which  are 
ever  on  guard  and  ready  to  strike  when 
one  organism  becomes  dangerous  to  its 
fellows.  When  the  green-flies  become  too 
abundant,  Hover-flies  and  other  natural 
foes  of  the  green-flies  quickly  appear,  and 
the  work  of  destruction  then  goes 
on  persistently  until  the  normal  balance  is 
again  established. 

Many  species  of  Hover-flies  may  be  met 
with  in  the  gardens  and  fields,  but  the 
species  whose  life  history  I  have  here 
described  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
commonest  members  of  the  family. 
Should  my  readers  desire  to  encourage 
these  insects  to  visit  their  gardens,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  cultivate  some  of  the 
old-fashioned  garden  flowers  such  as 
poppies,  sweet-williams,  thyme,  mint, 
cornflowers,  ox-eye  and  other  daisies,  etc. 
The  parent  insects  visit  these  blooms  for 


52 


49-  Sucking  the  juices  of  the  Green-fly — natural  size. 

50.  The  Pupa  or  Chrysalis. 

51.  The  Hover-fly  just  emerged  from  its  chrysalis. 

52.  Another  view  of  the  Hover-fly — natural  size. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  85 

their  nectar  and  pollen  ;  for,  as  previously 
explained,  the  flies  themselves  do  not  feed 
on  green-flies.  Therefore,  the  garden  with 
such  flowers  arranged  amongst  its  rose 
and  fruit  trees,  is  least  likely  to  suffer  from 
the  attacks  of  the  green-flies,  for  the 
Hover-flies  which  come  in  search  of  food 
will  soon  detect  their  presence  and  place 
their  eggs  amongst  them. 


CHAPTER   VII 

WINTER   BUTTERFLIES 

WHEN  damp  days  come  and  icy-cold 
winds  commence  to  blow,  man 
quite  naturally  seeks  a  closer  companion- 
ship with  his  fireside,  or  resorts  to  other 
artificial  means  of  raising  the  temperature 
of  his  surroundings  to  comfortable  con- 
ditions. In  wild  nature,  however,  such 
artificial  devices  for  obtaining  warmth  are, 
of  course,  impossible.  As  a  consequence, 
at  the  approach  of  frost  and  cold  tem- 
peratures Nature  shuts  up  shop,  as  it 
were ;  leaves  fall  rapidly  ;  many  birds  and 
small  animals  disappear  as  if  by  magic ; 
while  the  myriad  forms  of  insect  life  that 
were  so  abundant  on  every  hand,  seem, 
by  some  mysterious  means,  to  have  been 
suddenly  and  completely  swept  from  the 
districts  where  perhaps  only  a  few  hours 
before  they  revelled  in  the  sunlight. 


LARGE    WHITE    BUTTERFLIES    LOVE-MAKING. 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  87 

Man  is  so  busily  occupied  at  such  times 
in  attending  to  his  own  creature  comforts 
that  he  rarely  gives  a  thought  to  what 
is  happening  to  the  frail  life-forms  that 
appear  summer  after  summer  and  whose 
surprising  habits  ever  prove  a  source  of 
entertainment  for  him  during  his  summer 
and  autumn  rambles.  For  instance,  there 
is  the  familiar  Large  White  Butterfly 
(Plate  VI)  which  the  Londoner  may  some- 
times see  even  in  the  busy  thoroughfare 
of  the  Strand ;  or,  indeed,  in  almost  every 
spot  in  the  British  Isles,  so  abundant  is 
this  insect  in  both  town  and  country ; 
yet  how  few  of  those  who  know  the 
insect  well  could  tell  how  it  spends  the 
winter ! 

In  this  chapter,  therefore,  I  propose  to 
consider  how  winter  is  passed  by  some 
of  the  more  familiar  butterflies  of  summer- 
time. I  would  say,  furthermore,  that  each 
of  the  butterflies  illustrated  here  has  been 
photographed  from  life,  i.e.,  in  its  natural 
pose,  just  as  my  readers  might  see  it  in 
its  wild  state.  This  class  of  photography 
is  beset  with  many  difficulties,  as  those 
who  have  attempted  it  will  well  know. 


88  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

It  may  interest  readers  of  this  volume  to 
learn  that,  to  secure  some  of  the  pictures 
shown  here,  the  writer  had  often  to  spend 
four  or  five  hours  of  careful  watching 
with  camera  all  in  readiness,  so  rarely 
could  the  insects  be  caught  in  a  pose 
that  would  show  their  characteristic 
features  and  at  the  same  time  sufficiently 
at  rest  for  a  life-size  photograph  to  be 
made. 

It  is  not  at  all  surprising  that  the 
non-entomologist  should  find  a  difficulty 
in  stating  how  the  butterflies  with  which 
he  is  familiar  pass  the  winter  season,  for 
even  expert  entomologists  cannot  speak 
with  any  certainty  regarding  some  of  the 
most  common  species.  The  butterflies 
shown  in  Figs.  53,  54,  and  56  present 
examples  of  such  doubtful  character. 

The  Red  Admiral  is  one  of  the  com- 
monest and  most  striking  of  British 
butterflies ;  its  velvety,  black  forewings, 
striped  boldly  with  scarlet  and  heavily 
spotted  with  white,  together  with  its  large 
size,  readily  distinguish  it  as  it  feasts 
amongst  the  autumn  flowers.  Likewise, 
the  Clouded  Yellow  Butterfly,  with  its 


53-  The  Red  Admiral  Butterfly  with  closed  wings. 

54.  The  Red  Admiral  expands  its  wings. 

55.  A  Clouded  Yellow  Butterfly. 

56.  Small  Tortoiseshell  Butterfly. 

57.  Comma  Butterfly  resting  on  a  tree-stump  with  wings  open. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  89 

orange-coloured  wings  broadly  edged  with 
black  (Fig.  55)  is  equally  striking,  and 
sometimes  even  more  abundant,  although 
some  seasons  it  is  quite  scarce. 

Now,  both  these  butterflies  may  abound 
in  late  autumn,  but  at  the  first  signs  of 
frost  they  entirely  disappear.  Late  in 
the  following  spring  both  species  are 
often  seen  again,  but  as  isolated  indi- 
viduals or,  at  all  events,  in  small  numbers. 
From  these  facts  it  was  concluded  that 
the  butterflies  hibernated  for  the  winter 
and  that  the  cold  killed  off  most  of  them. 
There  is,  however,  good  reasons  for 
thinking  that  the  butterflies  seen  in 
spring  are  not  the  same  as  those  that 
showed  in  autumn.  The  spring  butterflies 
are,  most  probably,  immigrants  from  the 
Continent  blown  here  by  suitable  winds  ; 
and  it  is  the  offspring  of  these  immi- 
grant species  that  develop  into  the  larger 
broods  seen  at  autumn  ;  but  even  some 
of  these  may  be  new  arrivals.  In  the 
same  manner,  too,  the  large  autumn 
broods  at  the  approach  of  cold,  drift  with 
warm  winds  to  more  congenial  climes. 

This  theory  of  immigration  certainly  is 


90  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

more  plausible  than  that  of  hibernation, 
as  it  would  account  for  the  fact  that  the 
butterflies  are  never  found  hiding  during 
winter,  and  also  that  remains  of  the 
perished  individuals  of  the  large  autumn 
broods  are  never  met  with.  Another 
point  which  lends  colour  to  the  immi- 
gration theory  is  that  the  Painted  Lady 
Butterfly  (see  Chapter  X),  which  is  a 
first  cousin  to  the  Red  Admiral,  has  an 
established  reputation  as  a  notorious 
migrant.  Furthermore,  the  two  species 
are  often  found  associating  on  the  slopes 
and  summits  of  hills. 

It  may  be  said,  then,  of  these  hand- 
some species  that  they  do  not  "  spend 
the  winter "  anywhere,  but  evade  it ;  or, 
rather,  they  winter  abroad. 

Although  only  some  sixty-seven  or 
sixty-eight  butterfly  species  are  found  in 
the  British  Isles,  yet  they  have  solved 
the  winter  problem  in  quite  a  variety  of 
ways.  Though  some  of  our  most  hand- 
some butterflies  have  to  winter  abroad, 
other  species,  more  hardy  in  constitution, 
are  able  to  survive  throughout  the  months 
of  frost  and  snow. 


< 


PEACOCK .BUTTERFLY    RESTING. 
THE    BUTTERFLY    EXPANDS    ITS    WINGS. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  91 


That  such  a  frail  creature  as  a  butterfly, 
whose  life  activities  are  essentially  as- 
sociated with  warmth  and  sunlight,  should 
be  able  to  endure  several  months  of  damp 
and  snowy  weather  alternating  with 
periods  of  freezing  temperatures,  and 
then,  at  the  first  approach  of  mild  weather, 
take  to  its  wings  as  if  it  had  only  rested 
in  its  flight  awhile,  seems  a  remarkable 
fact ;  nevertheless,  this  is  true  of  several 
of  the  most  familiar  British  butterflies. 

In  Plate  VII,  and  in  Figs.  56,  57,  and 
58,  some  of  these  hibernating  species  are 
shown.  The  familiar  Peacock  Butterfly 
(Plate  VII)  is  readily  distinguished  by  its 
bold  "eyes"  (resembling  those  of  the  tail 
feathers  of  the  peacock)  glittering  on  the 
upper  surface  of  its  velvety  brown  wings 
as  it  moves  amongst  the  thistle  flowers 
in  autumn.  There  is  always  the  possi- 
bility that  this  insect  may  be  seen  flying 
on  any  day  in  mid-winter.  Even  during 
a  walk  on  a  snowy  Christmas  Day  that 
possibility  exists,  for  it  has  been  observed 
on  more  than  one  occasion  flying  over 
snow-covered  pastures. 

Likewise  the  Small  Tortoiseshell  (Fig.  56), 


92  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

one  of  the  prettiest  and  perhaps  the  most 
familiar  amongst  all  our  British  butter- 
flies that  bear  red  and  orange-coloured 
wings.  This  insect  is  easily  recognized  by 
its  orange  and  red  hues,  together  with  the 
pale  blue  splashes  that  decorate  the  edges 
of  its  wings.  On  any  mild  day  through- 
out the  winter  this  butterfly  is  likely  to  be 
tempted  from  its  hiding-place  to  stretch 
its  wings  with  a  short  flight  in  the  sunlight. 
Often  that  flight  results  in  disaster  in 
winter's  fickle  sunshine,  which  may  dis- 
appear as  quickly  as  it  came,  and  leave  the 
butterfly  numbed  and  cold  before  it  can 
find  its  hiding-place  again ;  nevertheless, 
sunshine  is  irresistible  to  this  merry  little 
insect,  and  of  all  the  butterflies  that  hiber- 
nate for  the  winter  this  is  the  one  most 
likely  to  be  observed. 

In  the  spring  the  Tortoiseshell  is  always 
one  of  the  earliest  butterflies  abroad,  and 
it  is  this  insect,  therefore,  that  provides 
the  crop  of  newspaper  paragraphs  that 
invariably  turn  up  about  February  or 
early  March,  stating  that  a  butterfly  has 
been  seen  on  the  wing,  attesting  the 
"  abnormal  mildness  of  the  weather." 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  93 

There  is,  of  course,  in  this  nothing 
abnormal ;  the  butterfly  might  have  been 
seen  in  December  or  January  for  that 
matter.  Before  one  can  be  justified  in 
describing  as  "  abnormal"  any  pheno- 
menon connected  with  insects,  he  should 
first  be  fully  acquainted  with  the  habits 
of  the  insects  themselves ;  but  more  on 
this  point  later. 

A  somewhat  similar  insect  to  the 
Tortoiseshell  is  the  Comma  Butterfly  (Fig. 
57).  This  insect  is  not  nearly  so  common 
as  the  former,  and  may  be  readily  distin- 
guished by  the  edges  of  its  wings  being 
much  more  jagged,  and  by  the  absence  of 
the  blue  spots  at  their  edges.  Sometimes 
on  a  winter's  day  this  insect  may  be  seen 
sailing  along  like  a  bit  of  tattered  leaf ;  its 
cut  wings,  however,  are  perfectly  natural. 

Now,  in  the  case  of  the  Peacock,  the 
Small  Tortoiseshell,  and  also  in  the 
Comma,  while  the  upper  sides  of  the 
wings  are  brilliantly  coloured,  the  lower 
sides  are  dull  and  dingy.  The  Peacock, 
illustrated  in  Plate  VII,  presents  a  good 
example  of  this.  One  moment  the  insect 
is  a  gorgeous  display  of  colour ;  it  closes 


94  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

its  wings,  and  instantly  its  colours  are 
obliterated.  The  advantages  that  these 
hibernating  species  derive  from  this 
characteristic  are  obvious. 

With  wings  open  the  insects  are  most 
conspicuous,  but  it  would  need  keen  eyes 
to  distinguish  them  when,  with  wings 
closed,  they  rest  against  the  dark  roof  of 
a  barn  or  beneath  the  ledge  in  a  hollow 
tree,  where  they  have  retreated  for  their 
winter  sleep.  The  curious  wavy  and 
irregular  markings  of  the  lower  wings 
harmonize  so  perfectly  with  the  dusty 
thatching  of  the  roof,  or  the  fallen  and 
shrivelled  leaves  that  lodge  in  the  crevices 
of  the  tree,  that  the  insects  become  com- 
pletely lost  amidst  their  surroundings. 

How  efficient  this  protection  is  I  have 
endeavoured  to  show  in  Plate  VIII.  The 
photograph  represents  two  Comma  butter- 
flies resting  in  their  natural  attitudes  (for 
the  insects  were  living  when  photographed) 
on  a  branch  bearing  shrivelled  leaves.  I 
wonder  how  many  readers  of  this  chapter 
would  have  observed  these  butterflies  had 
they  seen  the  branch  amidst  ordinary 
surroundings  ? 


1WO  COMMA  BUTTERFLIES,  SHOWING  THEIR  RESEMBLANCE 
'O    SHRIVELLED     LEAVES     WHEN    RESTING    WITH     CLOSED 

WINGS. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  95 

Even  their  pale-coloured  legs  and  the 
conspicuous  white  comma-like  marking 
in  the  centre  of  the  lower  wings  have 
their  meaning,  and,  as  the  photograph 
shows,  appear  only  like  damaged  parts 
and  insect-eaten  spots  in  the  tissues  of 
the  apparent  leaf.  Probably,  too,  the  con- 
trasting whiteness  of  the  legs  and  the 
comma-like  marking  serve  to  momentarily 
distract  the  eye  of  an  approaching  enemy, 
and  divert  it  from  the  general  contour 
of  the  insect,  but  as  they  remain  im- 
movable, the  eye  of  the  foraging  mouse 
or  bird  is  soon  turned  in  other  directions. 
Thus  it  would  neglect  to  give  its  usual 
close  scrutiny  to  that  particular  spot.  It 
is  from  the  comma-like  marking  referred  to 
that  the  butterfly  derives  its  popular  name. 

Then  there  is  the  Brimstone  Butterfly 
(Fig.  58),  the  male  of  bright  daffodil 
yellow  and  the  female  of  primrose  hue. 
This  is  another  insect  that  may  surprise 
the  country  rambler  any  sunny  day  during 
winter.  Its  colours  are  very  striking, 
and  one  naturally  wonders  how  with  such 
colours  it  can  remain  unseen  during  the 
period  of  its  hibernation  ;  however,  a 


96  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

little  thought  will  recall  to  the  mind 
that  this  yellow  colour  is  found  amongst 
many  evergreens,  as  variegated  laurels, 
barberries,  privets,  and  hollies,  and  as 
such  bushes  would  serve  as  good  shelter, 
these  shrubs  probably  offer  suitable  hiding- 
places  ;  also  the  leaf-like  aspect  of  the 
wings  tends  to  suggest  such  a  probability. 
About  a  dozen  of  British  butterfly 
species  select  the  chrysalis  stage  as  a 
means  of  solving  the  winter  problem. 
This  particularly  applies  to  the  various 
species  of  White  or  Cabbage  butterflies, 
so  familiar  throughout  the  summer  months. 
The  Large  White  (Plate  VI),  may  be 
taken  as  an  example.  That  insect  gener- 
ally spends  its  winter  under  the  coping 
of  the  garden  wall,  or  between  the  angles 
of  the  palings  and  fences,  fixed  in  a 
horizontal  position ;  although  summer 
broods  sometimes  attach  themselves  to 
leaves,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59,  where  two 
chrysalids  are  seen  held  by  their  silken 
girdles  to  a  lily-of-the-valley  leaf ;  in  this 
form  the  insect  awaits  an  atmosphere  more 
congenial  for  its  destructive  work  amongst 
the  cabbages. 


58.  Brimstone  Butterflies  love-making. 

59.  Two  chrysalides  of  the  Large  White  Butterfly. 

60.  Four  Orange-tip  Butterflies,  showing  how  they  become  incon- 

spicuous amongst  the  umbels  of  green  and  white  flowers 
when  their  wings  are  closed. 

61.  Chrysalis  of  the  Orange-tip  Butterfly. 

62.  The  Speckled  Wood  Butterfly— see  63. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  97 

In  Fig.  60,  some  Orange-tip  Butterflies 
are  shown.  These  are  familiar  insects  in 
May  and  June,  and  easily  recognized 
by  the  mottled-green  and  white  under- 
wings  (shown  in  photograph)  which  are 
white  above,  the  forewings  being  tipped 
and  spotted  with  black.  In  the  male 
insect  the  forewings  bear  a  bright  patch 
of  orange  colour  at  their  tips,  hence  the 
popular  name  "  orange-tip."  In  July  the 
caterpillar  of  this  butterfly  gives  up  feed- 
ing and  attaches  itself  to  a  stem, 'often  that 
of  the  lady's-smock,  on  whose  seed-pods 
it  feeds.  Then  it  moults  its  skin  and 
changes  into  a  chrysalis  like  that  shown 
in  Fig.  61.  The  chrysalis  in  shape 
resembles  the  seed-pods  amongst  which 
it  is  not  infrequently  placed,  and  possibly 
by  this  means  it  is  protected  from  the 
eyes  of  its  enemies  during  this  longest 
period  of  its  life ;  for  it  continues  in  the 
chrysalis  stage  from  the  end  of  July 
until  May  of  the  following  year.  During 
all  this  time  the  tender  chrysalis  remains 
exposed  ;  it  is  subjected  to  drenching 
rains,  and  becomes  frozen  and  thawed 
many  times,  but  at  the  end  of  it  all  the 

7 


98  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

delicate  butterfly  breaks  from  its  frail 
protective  shell  and  greets  the  sunlight. 
It  is  interesting,  too,  to  note  that  at  the 
first  the  chrysalis  is  green  like  the  seed- 
pods  ;  later  in  the  autumn,  when  the  pods 
become  browned,  the  chrysalis  likewise 
assumes  that  colour ;  thus  the  chrysalis 
remains  inconspicuous. 

The  famous  Swallow-tail  Butterfly  (see 
Chapter  II)  also  remains  throughout  the 
winter  in  the  chrysalis  state ;  the  chrysalis 
is  attached  to  the  stems  of  the  reeds  in 
an  upright  position,  as  shown  in  Fig.  11. 
This  insect,  however,  is  now  only  to  be 
found  in  the  Eastern  counties  in  a  few 
districts  amongst  the  undrained  fens. 
Drainage  and  cultivation  seem  to  have 
driven  it  from  many  of  its  old  haunts  ; 
it  is,  nevertheless,  a  familiar  insect  on 
the  Continent. 

Now  it  is  obvious  that  if  either  the 
Large  White  butterfly,  the  Orange-tip,  or 
the  Swallow-tail  were  seen  flying  in 
February  or  March,  that  fact  might  then 
reasonably  be  put  forward  as  evidence  of 
the  "  abnormal  mildness  of  the  weather," 
for  these  butterflies  rarely  emerge  until 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  99 

winter  is  well  past.  Thus,  as  I  have 
previously  mentioned,  the  writers  of  the 
weather  paragraphs  should  first  look  to 
the  butterfly  before  offering  its  advent  as 
proof  of  a  mild  season.  Even  then  mis- 
takes may  be  made,  for  it  sometimes 
happens  that  a  caterpillar  forms  its  chrys- 
alis against  a  greenhouse  chimney  or  in 
some  similar  warm  quarters,  and  so  its 
butterfly  arrives  prematurely  into  a  cold 
and  desolate  world,  only  to  perish  quickly. 
However,  when,  in  the  course  of  a  ramble 
early  in  the  year,  a  few  butterflies  of  a 
species  known  to  spend  the  winter  in 
the  chrysalis  stage  are  seen,  then  it  is 
a  true  sign  of  winter's  retreat.  The  sexes 
necessarily  must  appear  together,  and 
when  several  butterflies  are  seen  moving 
about  it  is  at  least  evidence  of  a  milder 
temperature. 

The  most  general  method  of  wintering 
amongst  British  butterflies  is  in  their 
caterpillar  stage ;  more  than  thirty  of  our 
sixty-odd  native  species  so  spend  the 
winter.  The  Speckled  Wood  Butterfly 
(Figs.  62  and  63),  however,  varies  its 
proceedings,  and  is  sometimes  a  caterpillar 


ioo  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

and  at  other  times  a  chrysalis  (Fig.  64) 
during  the  winter  period.  Probably,  when 
the  autumn  is  mild  the  caterpillars  con- 
tinue their  development  and  complete 
their  feeding,  and  thus  attain  the  chrysalis 
stage  before  winter. 

When  the  caterpillars  hibernate  they 
are  usually  very  small,  and  hide  amongst 
the  leaves  low  down  on  the  ground. 
The  familiar  Small  Copper  Butterfly, 
shown  in  Fig  65,  presents  a  good 
example.  The  caterpillars  are  like  tiny 
green  slugs  (Fig  66),  which  conceal  them- 
selves beneath  dock-leaves  ;  early  in  the 
year  they  continue  their  feeding,  and  by 
April  or  May  complete  their  development 
and  become  butterflies. 

The  same  method  is  adopted  by  most 
of  the  species  of  the  charming  little  blue 
butterflies  that  flit  from  flower  to  flower 
and  make  gay  the  grassy  roadsides  at 
midsummer.  The  Chalk  Hill  Blue  (Plate 
IX)  is  a  very  familiar  example,  being  found 
in  most  of  the  Southern  counties.  The 
species  known  as  the  Silver-studded  Blue, 
however,  spends  its  winter  in  the  egg 
stage.  The  eggs  are  deposited  amongst 


63-  The  Speckled  Wood  Butterfly  with  open  wings. 

64.  Chrysalides  of  the  Speckled  Wood  Butterfly  amongst  grass 

blades. 

65.  Small  Copper  Butterfly. 

66.  Slug-like  caterpillars  of  the  Small  Copper  Butterfly. 

67.  Eggs  of  the  Silver-studded  Blue  Butterfly — magnified. 

68.  Eggs  of  the  High  Brown  Fritillary  Butterfly — magnified. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  101 

the  stems  of  heather  during  July  and 
August  and  remain  through  the  winter, 
the  young  caterpillars  hatching  from  them 
in  April  of  the  following  year.  In  Fig  67, 
two  of  these  eggs  are  shown  as  they 
appear  when  magnified  twenty  diameters, 
or  four  hundred  times. 

There  are  some  eight  species  of  British 
butterflies  that  pass  the  winter  in  the  egg 
stage,  but  most  of  these  are  familiar  only 
to  entomologists  ;  four  of  them  are  known 
as  Hairstreaks,  and  three  of  them  belong 
to  the  Skippers ;  the  eighth  is  the  more 
familiar  Silver-studded  Blue  just  mentioned. 
There  is  also  a  ninth  species  which  seems 
to  compromise  the  matter  of  egg  and 
caterpillar  stage.  This  is  the  High 
Brown  Fritillary,  which  deposits  its  eggs 
in  July,  and  although  these  do  not  hatch 
out  their  caterpillars  until  the  following 
April,  yet  the  young  caterpillars  are  per- 
fectly formed  within  the  egg  before  winter. 
In  Fig  68,  some  of  these  eggs  are  shown 
magnified  about  three  hundred  times,  and 
from  one  of  them  I  have  removed  the 
young  caterpillar.  The  time  of  its  re- 
moval was  the  middle  of  September  ;  the 


102  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

illustration,  therefore,  gives  positive  proof 
that  the  young  caterpillars  are  fully  formed 
eight  or  nine  months  before  they  appear. 
Thus  it  is  clear  that  it  is  not  an 
easy  matter  to  state  definitely  how 
British  butterflies  spend  their  winter.  It 
is  obvious,  though,  that  the  various 
methods  adopted  by  the  different  species 
have  a  direct  connection  with  the  timely 
development  of  the  insect ;  each  species 
appears  in  its  due  season — wiien  its  food- 
plants  are  to  be  found. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

AN    INTERVIEW   WITH   A   DEVIL'S   COACH- 
HORSE   BEETLE 

(Ocypus  olens) 

OUR  meeting  was  quite  impromptu. 
He  had  just  come  from  under  a 
heap  of  stones  and  was  travelling  at  a 
rapid  pace  along  the  dusty  road,  when 
I  approached.  I  do  not  think  that  he 
heard  me  coming,  but  probably  the 
vibration  from  my  footsteps  warned  him 
of  my  presence,  and,  being  a  warrior 
bold  who  knew  no  fear,  he  instantly 
halted.  He  set  his  legs  wide  apart  and 
gripped  the  ground  firmly  with  his  feet, 
while  his  jointed  feelers  quivered 
excitedly  for  a  moment,  and  then 
became  still — as  shown  in  Fig.  69. 

Now  a  Devil's  Coach-horse  Beetle  that 
is  not  prepared  to  meet  a  foe  and  fight 
until  death,  if  need  be,  is  no  credit  to 
his  race.  This  fellow  was  no  coward, 


104  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

he  evidently  had  no  intention  of  running 
away ;  indeed,  his  attitude  seemed  to 
distinctly  invite  a  quarrel. 

While  he  was  awaiting  events,  there 
was  ample  opportunity  of  viewing  this 
gentleman  of  the  road,  and  it  did  not 
take  long  to  decide  that  he  was 
undoubtedly  the  ugliest  insect  that  one 
could  expect  to  meet  on  an  English 
roadside.  He  looked  somewhat  like  a 
large  and  exaggerated  earwig  without 
tail-pincers,  and  with  a  big  head 
bearing  a  pair  of  cruel-looking  eyes. 
His  colour,  too,  helped  his  hideousness, 
for,  quite  unlike,  I  think,  any  other 
animal  in  the  British  fauna,  he  was  a 
funereal,  dead  black  from  head  to 
tail. 

I  pushed  the  toe  of  my  boot  towards 
his  tail-end.  That  was  more  than  his 
irritable  and  aggressive  nature  could 
tolerate,  and  in  an  instant  he  turned 
completely  round,  fully  prepared  for 
battle.  He  held  his  head  low  down 
and  half  raised  his  tail,  and  seemed  all 
ready  to  make  a  sudden  and  ferocious 
charge — as  shown  in  Fig.  70.  Probably 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  105 

that  manoeuvre  scares  away  many  of  his 
foes ;  his  tactic,  however,  is  to  invite 
the  charge  rather  than  to  make  it. 

He,  therefore,  adopted  his  usual 
procedure  and  once  more  became 
motionless  in  his  changed  attitude. 
Another  movement  of  my  toe  instantly 
produced  another  and  more  desperate 
posture.  He  rapidly  changed  the  position 
of  his  legs,  raised  high  his  tail  in 
scorpion  fashion,  opened  wide  his  huge 
jaws  (which,  as  in  all  biting  insects,  open 
sideways),  and  positively  glared  with 
his  cruel-looking  eyes  in  a  most  savage 
manner — as  shown  in  the  photograph 
(Fig.  71).  Then  from  a  pair  of  glands  at  the 
tip  of  his  tail  he  discharged  two  globules 
of  a  volatile  fluid  with  a  horrible  odour. 

Brave  would  have  been  the  insectivorous 
foe  that  dared  to  tackle  such  a  meal. 
Doubtless,  in  the  course  of  his  life  he 
had  scared  away  many  birds,  hedgehogs, 
toads,  lizards,  and  similar  enemies  by 
these  same  manoeuvres,  but  he  had  never 
before  met  a  wandering  naturalist  bent 
on  seeing  what  fighting  powers  a  Devil's 
Coach-horse  Beetle  really  possessed. 


io6  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Here,  therefore,  was  a  new  venture  for 
this  fellow  of  menacing  attitudes. 

After  the  one  discharge  of  the  evil 
fluid,  that  means  of  defence  was  for  the 
time  being  exhausted.  Its  next  defence 
was  its  jaws,  for  although  its  tail  assumes 
a  stinging  posture,  yet  it  is  quite 
incapable  of  stinging.  So  its  wide- 
opened  mandibles  would  be  the  foe's 
next  consideration.  Can  it  really  bite?  the 
unsatisfied  attacker  would  naturally  inquire. 

A  small  folded  portion  of  coarse 
brown  paper  would  probably  represent 
a  fairly  tough  natural  foe.  So  with  that 
object  in  one  hand  and  the  camera 
release-ball  in  the  other  I  made  some 
experiments.  I  gently  pushed  the  folded 
paper  towards  him.  He  at  once  savagely 
seized  it,  much  after  the  manner  of  an 
angry  bull-dog,  attacking  it  not  only 
with  his  mandibles,  but  also  with  his 
legs.  He  held  it  so  firmly  that  I  was 
able  to  lift  him  up  from  the  ground 
(Fig.  72),  but  that  movement  only  made 
him  still  more  desperately  angry,  causing 
him  to  hold  on  literally  with  "tooth  and 
nail" — as  shown  in  Fig.  73. 


s. 


75 


69.  The  Devil's  Coach-horse  Beetle  scenting  danger. 

70.  Showing  fight. 

71.  Raising  high  its  tail  and  opening  wide  its  huge  jaws. 

72.  Attacking  a  bit  of  coarse  paper  with  which  it  was  touched. 

73.  Getting  desperate. 

74.  A  savage  attack  upon  a  leaf-stalk. 

75.  Holding  on  by  its  jaws  while  the  leaf-stalk  was  held  up 

76.  Biting  and  holding  on  to  the  author's  finger. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  107 

After  a  few  minutes  I  laid  him  and 
the  paper  down,  and  when  the  latter  had 
been  quiet  sufficiently  long  to  justify  its 
release,  he  let  go ;  he,  however,  made 
no  attempt  to  move  away,  but  doggedly 
waited  for  the  paper  to  move  again. 

When  he  had  rested  for  about  five 
minutes  I  laid  a  leaf-stalk  beside  him. 
His  blood  being  up,  and  apparently 
having  laid  one  enemy  low,  he  was  quite 
ready  for  the  next,  for  he  instantly 
pounced  on  this,  taking  the  end  of  it 
firmly  in  his  jaws.  My  touching  the 
other  end  of  it  made  him  very  angry, 
causing  him  to  get  his  legs  well  over  it 

(Fig-  74 

I    then    lifted    the    leaf-stalk,    when    to 

my  great  astonishment  he  raised  his 
tail  and  slowly  turned  half  a  somersault, 
and  in  that  attitude  he  held  firmly  on, 
his  mandibles  bearing  his  whole  weight 
(see  Fig.  75)  until  I  laid  him  and  the 
leaf-stalk  down  again. 

An  examination  of  the  folded  brown 
paper  showed  that  his  mandibles  had 
neatly  pierced  it.  Were  those  jaws  strong 
enough  to  pierce  the  human  skin  ? 


io8  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Many  stories  have  been  told  of  people 
being  bitten  by  these  insects,  and  of 
the  various  ill-consequences  thereof,  but 
perhaps  such  stories  were,  as  is  so  often 
the  case  with  little-understood  creatures, 
founded  on  superstition  and  ignorance. 
To  definitely  decide  the  point,  therefore, 
after  he  had  rested,  I  offered  him  the  tip 
of  my  forefinger.  Again  he  was  ready 
to  attack,  and  time  after  time  he 
endeavoured  to  get  a  grip,  but  the 
roundness  of  the  finger  prevented  this. 
I  could  distinctly  feel  the  nip  of  his  little 
jaws,  and  the  amount  of  pressure  which 
they  exerted  was  really  astonishing. 
Suddenly  I  felt  that  he  had  accomplished 
his  purpose,  when  I  instantly  withdrew 
my  finger.  The  skin  was  firmly  gripped 
and  he  was  holding  on,  as  the  photo- 
graph (Fig.  76)  shows.  He  had,  however, 
made  a  mistake  in  biting  so  hard  on 
this  occasion,  for  his  wedge-shaped  jaws 
had  penetrated  only  the  surface  skin ; 
but  so  thoroughly  had  they  been  driven 
in  that  he  was  not  strong  enough  to 
withdraw  them  again. 

It  was  obvious,  then,  that  on  occasion 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  109 

this  beetle  will  attack  a  human  being, 
and  although  its  little  mandibles  can  only 
penetrate  the  surface  skin  of  the  finger, 
yet  on  the  face,  or  neck,  where  the  skin 
is  more  tender,  they  might  enter  more 
deeply.  Also,  should  the  insect  make  its 
attack  in  a  dusty  cellar,  or  after  preying 
upon  some  carrion  material,  it  might 
result  in  some  poison  being  conveyed 
to  the  wound,  and  so  set  up  blood- 
poisoning  in  the  case  of  an  unhealthy 
person. 

Since  the  attack  in  my  own  case  was 
provoked,  I  bore  no  ill-will  against  the 
beetle,  and  having  performed  his  part 
so  well,  I  carefully  released  him  and 
placed  him  on  the  ground.  After 
cleaning  up  his  mouth-parts  and  waiting 
sufficiently  long  to  see  that  no  further 
enemies  were  abroad,  he  pursued  his 
path  on  the  roadside,  quite  ready  to 
attack  his  prey  in  the  same  fearless 
manner  that  he  had  dealt  with  his 
supposed  foes.  In  spite  of  his  hideous- 
ness  and  readiness  to  attack  foes  both 
great  and  small,  he  is  a  most  useful 
insect,  and  should  never  be  killed ;  his 


i  io  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

prey  consists  of  almost  any  insect  with 
which  he  happens  to  meet,  and  a  slug 
or  a  worm  does  not  come  amiss  to  him  ; 
he  will  even  attack  a  young  toad.  Also, 
he  has  ample  wings,  is  a  bold  flier,  and 
is  common  throughout  the  British  Isles. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE    LIFE-STORY   OF  THE   LUNAR 
HORNET-MOTH 

(Trochilium  crabroniformis) 

THE  woodman  had  been  busy  for 
several  weeks  past  in  the  copse- 
wood,  and  the  young  trees  and  saplings 
which  the  previous  autumn  had  occupied 
all  the  available  space  between  the  older 
trees  were  now  so  much  short-cut  under- 
wood, the  new  wood  of  their  cut  ends 
standing  out  conspicuously  above  the 
sheets  of  nodding  blue-bells  and  fresh 
green  of  the  spring  herbage. 

Here  and  there  the  cut  boles  of  some 
of  the  older  tree-tenants  of  the  wood 
showed  that  the  gleaming  axes  had  carried 
out  the  bailiff's  decree.  Now,  however, 
the  great  tree  trunks  and  brushwood  had 
been  carried  away,  and  Nature  was 
tidying-up  things  and  rapidly  repairing 


U2  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  damage  done ;  and,  in  spite  of  the 
havoc  wrought,  everything  looked  bright 
and  hopeful  in  the  morning  sunlight. 

Sitting  on  a  tree-base  listening  to  the 
music  of  the  birds,  and  endeavouring  to 
picture  in  the  mind's  eye  how  the  damaged 
branches  will  shortly  be  clothed  and 
hidden  from  view  by  the  fresh  green 
leaves  of  the  now  conspicuous  new 
shoots,  the  eye  is  suddenly  attracted 
by  a  neatly-cut  round  hole  in  the  lopped 
stump  of  a  branch  of  the  sallow  or  goat- 
willow  tree.  The  hole  is  just  about 
large  enough  to  receive  the  end  of  a 
lead  pencil,  or  the  tip  of  one's  little 
finger,  and  apparently  it  has  been  cut 
by  means  of  an  auger  (Fig.  77).  One 
naturally  wonders  what  purpose  the  wood- 
man had  in  boring  that  hole,  especially 
as  other  willow  stumps  similarly  bored 
may  be  found  here  and  there  throughout 
the  coppice. 

It  was  indeed  a  strange  "  woodman " 
that  drilled  those  holes,  but  how  they 
were  formed  need  not  trouble  us  for  the 
moment,  for  just  at  present  there  is  a 
more  important  matter  for  consideration. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  113 

The  sun's  rays  are  falling  directly  into 
the  hole  under  observation,  partly  illumina- 
ting its  interior,  and  while  we  are  won- 
dering what  function  the  hole  could 
serve,  we  suddenly  become  aware  of  the 
fact  that  there  is  something  moving 
inside  it.  What  can  it  be?  Some  in- 
quisitive insect,  maybe,  that  has  entered 
and  is  now  returning.  Whatever  it  is,  it 
is  moving  but  slowly  ! 

Presently  the  forepart  of  a  shiny  brown 
body  appears,  gradually  advancing  by 
little  bunts  as  if  pushed  from  behind, 
until  at  last  it  is  distinctly  protruding 
from  the  hole  (Fig.  78).  Still  it  continues 
to  advance,  and  just  when  we  expect  to 
see  the  curious  object  fall  on  the  ground 
a  most  extraordinary  transformation  scene 
takes  place. 

The  brown  skin  suddenly  breaks  open, 
and  from  it  a  wasp-like  insect  with  a 
black-and-yellow-banded  body  crawls  on 
to  the  bark  (Fig.  79).  Its  wings  at 
first  looked  soiled  and  crumpled,  but  in 
a  few  minutes  they  unfold  from  their 
creases,  and  the  insect  at  once  commences 
to  travel  up  the  branch,  continuing  until 


ii4  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

it  reaches  the  cut  end  left  by  the  woodman 
(Fig.  80).  There  the  hornet-like  creature 
suns  itself  for  an  hour  or  more,  looking 
decidedly  dangerous  even  as  it  rests. 
When  the  sun  is  at  its  brightest  the 
insect's  feelers  suddenly  commence  to 
quiver  excitedly,  and  then,  with  a  bee-like 
buzz,  it  takes  to  its  wings,  rising  in  the 
air  and  before  departing  flying  about 
twice  around  our  heads  with  all  the 
characteristic  movements  of  a  dangerous 
stinging  insect,  causing  us  instinctively 
to  duck,  even  though  we  may  know  the 
insect  to  be  perfectly  harmless. 

Such  an  incident  anyone  may  be 
fortunate  enough  to  witness  should  they 
wander  amongst  willow  and  poplar-trees 
(but  perhaps  more  often  in  the  case  of 
the  former)  during  June  and  July,  and, 
very  naturally,  a  surprised  eye-witness  will 
desire  to  understand  a  little  more  of 
what  has  really  taken  place,  and  it  is  a 
curious  story  indeed. 

The  wasp-like  insect  is  a  quite  harmless 
creature  and  is  known  to  the  entomologist 
as  the  Lunar  Hornet-moth,  so  named 
from  its  remarkable  superficial  resemblance 


77-    The  hole  in  the  stump. 

78.  What  came  out  of  the  hole. 

79.  A  transformation  scene  :   the  brown  skin  burst  open  and  a 

curious  wasp-like  insect  quickly  crawled  on  to  the  bark 
and  developed  its  wings. 

80.  The    black  -  and  -  yellow  -  banded     insect    looked     decidedly 

dangerous  as  it  rested. 

81.  The  hornet-like  creature  was  nevertheless  a  harmless  moth, 

with  transparent  wings  and  a  wasp-like  body. 

82.  Eggs  of  the  moth  on  the  bark 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  115 

to  the  dangerous  stinging  hornet.  It  does 
not  really  resemble  a  hornet,  for  if  the 
two  insects  are  examined  together  their 
difference  is  quite  obvious ;  but  the 
arrangement  of  black,  yellow,  and  brown 
colouring,  combined  with  the  wasp-like 
form  (for  a  hornet  is  only  a  large  species 
of  wasp),  together  with  its  similar  habits  of 
movement  and  flight,  and  the  still  more 
extraordinary  transparent  wings,  give  a 
distinct  hornet  impression  (Fig.  81);  and 
when  that  dangerous  insect  is  under 
observation  one  does  not  stop  to  quibble 
over  details. 

This  remarkable  moth  has,  in  the 
course  of  its  evolution,  become  deceptively 
coloured  to  represent  an  imitation  hornet 
or  wasp,  and  the  object  of  such  mimicry 
is,  of  course,  obvious  enough,  for  the 
poisonous  stings  so  characteristic  of  the 
wasp  family  render  them  immune  from 
the  attacks  of  many  would-be  foes. 

The  extent  to  which  this  mimicry  has 
been  carried  is  striking  in  many  respects, 
for  not  only  have  the  movements  of 
these  stinging  insects  been  faithfully 
followed,  but  the  moth  is  also  able  to 


n6  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

make  a  buzzing  sound  when  it  approaches 
very  like  that  of  a  wasp  or  bee — a  most 
unusual  characteristic  for  a  moth.  Even 
their  external  anatomy  is  likewise  largely 
reproduced.  The  antennae,  or  feelers,  are 
considerably  more  like  those  of  a  wasp 
than  a  moth  (Fig.  80),  while  again  the 
colours  of  the  moth  heighten  the  im- 
posture ;  but  the  most  extraordinary 
feature  of  all  is  the  acquirement  of 
transparent  wings. 

A  moth  in  the  ordinary  way  has  its 
otherwise  transparent  wings  clothed  on 
both  sides  with  innumerable  minute  opaque 
scales,  all  placed  like  the  tiles  on  the 
roof  of  a  house,  and  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  these  scales  are  arranged 
in  groups  and  lines  of  various  colours, 
so  the  markings  and  colouring  of  the 
wings  are  varied.  Consequently,  when 
handling  the  wings  of  a  moth,  we  find 
our  fingers  covered  with  "dust,"  but 
which  really  consists  of  these  microscopic 
scales  rubbed  from  the  insect's  wings,  and 
the  more  "  dust "  removed  by  the  fingers 
the  more  transparent  becomes  the  wings. 

The  wings  of  the  Hornet-moth,  however, 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  117 

in  acquiring  a  similarity  to  those  of  its 
protected  model,  have  almost  entirely  lost 
their  scales,  only  their  margins  now  being 
so  clothed,  which  gives  them  a  dark 
edging,  quite  different  from  those  of  a 
wasp  or  hornet.  In  this  connection  it  is 
an  interesting  fact  that  when  the  moth  is 
enclosed  in  its  chrysalis  skin  its  wings 
are  then  clothed  with  scales,  which 
disappear  as  it  completes  its  development 
— a  feature  which  shows  that  its  trans- 
parent wings  were  derived  from  those 
of  the  ordinary  type  common  to  moths. 

There  are  some  fourteen  species  of 
these  clear-wing  moths  found  in  the 
British  Isles,  but  the  whole  family  of 
them,  excepting  the  species  under  con- 
sideration and  one  other  nearly  related 
insect,  are  much  smaller  than  a  wasp ; 
they  nevertheless  all  bear  the  charac- 
teristics of  stinging  insects,  and  probably 
derive  protective  advantages  from  their 
resemblance. 

Now  in  the  ordinary  way  a  moth  is  of 
nocturnal  habits,  flying  at  dusk  or  in  the 
darkness  of  the  night ;  but  our  hornet- 
like  moth  flies  during  the  day  in  the 


ii8  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

sunlight.  It  is  obvious  that  a  mimetic 
resemblance  to  a  wasp  would  serve  no 
purpose  to  an  insect  of  nocturnal  habits, 
for  the  wasp  spends  the  night  in  the  nest. 
We  see,  therefore,  that  not  only  has  the 
colour,  external  anatomy,  and  bodily 
movements  of  the  moth  become  mar- 
vellously adapted  to  correspond  with 
those  of  a  wasp-like  insect,  but  so  relent- 
lessly has  it  pursued  the  path  of  its 
model  that  it  has  even  changed  from  a 
night-flying  to  a  day-flying  insect. 

We  should  remember,  too,  that  all 
these  extraordinary  changes  have  been 
effected  quite  unconsciously  so  far  as  the 
moth  itself  is  concerned ;  it  probably 
knows  nothing  of  its  remarkable  similitude 
to  a  wasp.  Such  features  are  the  outcome 
of  variations,  or  "  sports,"  which  from  time 
to  time  have  approached  wasp-like  charac- 
teristics, and  these  individuals  (being 
better  protected  than  their  fellows)  have 
survived  and  conveyed  to  their  offspring 
their  peculiarities,  the  variations  of  the 
later  generations  again  and  again  ad- 
vancing in  the  same  direction  until  we 
have  the  wonderful  results  here  described. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  119 

We  might  very  naturally  suppose  that 
a  moth  possessing  such  extraordinary 
protective  characteristics  would  have 
become  very  successful  in  the  struggle 
for  existence,  but  this  Hornet-moth  is  by 
no  means  abundant.  Indeed,  it  probably 
represents  an  insect  which  has  been  much 
persecuted  for  very  long  periods  of  time 
by  its  natural  foes,  and  only  by  means  of 
these  striking  developments  has  it  been 
saved  from  extermination.  It  is  highly 
probable  that  in  its  perfect  state  (i.e.,  in 
its  moth  stage)  it  is  to-day  particularly 
well  protected,  but  there  are  stages  in  its 
history,  before  its  wasp-like  resemblance 
commences,  when  it  has  very  dangerous 
foes  to  encounter ;  which  brings  us  to 
that  period  before  it  emerged  from  the 
round  hole  in  the  willow  stump. 

When  we  examine  the  neatly  drilled  hole 
from  which  the  moth  appeared,  it  seems 
incredible  that  the  insect  itself  could  have 
cut  that  hole  in  the  solid  wood  ;  neverthe- 
less, such  was  the  fact.  When  the  female 
moth  takes  to  her  wings  and  flies  in  the 
sunlight,  she  soon  finds  a  mate,  and 
afterwards  her  business  in  life  is  to  seek 


120  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

for  stumps  of  the  goat-willow  similar  in 
size  to  that  from  which  she  herself 
emerged.  Having  selected  a  suitable 
branch,  she  deposits  some  of  her  eggs 
upon  it  (Fig.  82).  The  eggs  are  brown 
in  colour,  and  are  therefore  not  at  all 
conspicuous  when  resting  on  the  bark ; 
occasionally,  too,  they  are  placed  on  the 
leaves  of  shoots  near  the  ground. 

In  due  course  the  little  caterpillar 
emerges  from  the  egg  and  crawls  to  suitable 
parts  of  the  bark,  and  there  commences  to 
burrow  into  the  wrood,  continuing  until  it 
reaches  the  central  area  of  the  branch, 
where  it  eats  out  a  tunnel  extending 
upwards  for  several  inches,  widening  it  as 
it  grows. 

Eventually  it  develops  into  a  fairly  large 
white,  maggot-like  grub,  which  not  in- 
frequently spends  two  years  feeding  within 
the  branch  ;  but  it  never  forgets  to  pay 
due  attention  ;to  the  diameter  of  the 
entrance  hole,  for  this  has  to  be  kept 
sufficiently  large  to  allow  of  its  emergence 
when  it  has  completed  its  development. 
Also,  it  always  takes  careful  precaution 
to  lock  and  bolt  the  door  against  intruders 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  121 

to  its  dwelling;  for  there  are  many 
dangerous  foes  outside  that  make  it  their 
business  to  enter  any  open  holes  that  they 
may  find.  Sometimes  these  visitors  are 
themselves  in  search  of  a  meal,  or  it  may  be 
that  they  have  young  to  feed ;  while  still 
other  uninvited  guests  make  a  practice  of 
depositing  their  eggs  in  such  situations, 
and  then,  when  their  offspring  hatch  out, 
they  find  a  well-fed  grub  on  which  to  prey. 

To  properly  understand  how  the  Hornet- 
moth  larva  guards  its  citadel  against 
attacks  of  such  kinds  we  require  to  care- 
fully split  down  the  branch  in  which  it 
lives,  and  so  get  an  internal  view  of  the 
stump,  as  shown  in  Fig.  83. 

The  external  hole  is  at  the  bottom  of  the 
left-hand  division  (Fig.  84),  and  it  is  seen 
to  be  barricaded  on  the  inside  by  means  of 
wood  scrapings,  which  are  held  together 
by  strong  silken  threads  spun  by  the  cater- 
pillar and  woven  in  amongst  them. 
Should  an  enemy  by  persistent  efforts 
effect  an  entrance  through  this  obstruction, 
the  caterpillar  is  still  protected  by  a  further 
barricade  of  the  same  materials,  which  at 
least  does  not  encourage  it. 


122  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Thus  protected,  the  larva  tunnels  its  way 
along  the  heart  of  the  branch  with  its  head 
directed  upwards.  Then  comes  the  time 
when  it  is  full-fed,  when  a  most  curious 
instinct  comes  into  play.  The  larva  which 
has  hitherto  worked  up  the  branch  head 
forwards  reverses  its  position  and  directs 
its  head  towards  the  place  of  egress.  It 
then  moults  its  skin  and  becomes  a  brown 
chrysalis,  as  shown  in  Fig.  84.  The  object 
of  its  change  of  position  then  immediately 
becomes  obvious,  for  while  the  flexible 
body  of  the  caterpillar  could  readily  reverse 
its  position  in  the  tunnel,  yet  with  the 
stubborn  body  of  the  chrysalis  this  would 
have  been  quite  impossible. 

The  chrysalis  lies  by  for  some  three 
or  four  weeks,  during  which  time  the  moth 
matures,  developing  its  transparent  wings 
and  wasp-like  characteristics,  until  some 
morning  when  the  sun  has  well-warmed 
the  external  area  of  the  branch,  the  moth 
enclosed  in  the  chrysalis  skin  is  encouraged 
into  active  life. 

Should  the  moth  emerge  into  the  cavity 
bored  by  the  larva,  its  wings  and  soft 
body  would  get  sadly  damaged  in  effecting 


83.  An  internal  view  of  the  stump.       The  Moth  Caterpillar  is 

seen  on  the  left  in  the  passage  it  has  bored  in  the  wood. 

84.  The  caterpillar  has  now  changed   into  a  chrysalis,   which, 

although  legless,  has  to  break  through  the  barrier  of  wood- 
scrapings  near  to  it  and  work  its  way  down  the  boring  to 
the  hole  and  force  its  way  through  into  the  sunlight,  as 
shown  in  78. 

85.  An  enlarged  view  of  the  empty  chrysalis  skin,  showing  that 

each  segment  is  edged  with  spines  which  serve  as 
"climbing-irons"  to  the  pupa. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  123 

its  escape ;  but  such  does  not  happen. 
The  chrysalis  steadily  and  persistently 
bores  its  way  with  its  wedge-shaped  head 
through  the  first  barrier,  and  then  slowly 
works  its  way  down  the  boring  until  the 
closing  defence  at  the  entrance  is  reached, 
which  it  likewise  penetrates,  and  so 
emerges  through  the  open  hole  into  the 
sunlight,  as  shown  in  Figs.  78  and  79. 

Since  the  chrysalis  is  not  provided  with 
legs  or  other  limbs,  it  is  somewhat 
astonishing  how  it  can  travel  for  several 
inches  through  the  boring,  especially  as 
it  has  to  force  its  way  through  barriers 
which  resist  the  attacks  of  many  of  its 
natural  foes.  The  movement,  however, 
is  explained  if  we  examine  the  empty 
chrysalis  skin  which  it  leaves  behind 
(Fig.  85),  for  each  segment  is  provided 
with  a  row  of  strong  spines  which  act  as 
"  climbing  irons,"  gripping  the  sides  of 
the  boring  as  the  pupa  works  its  way 
downwards. 

Such,  then,  are  a  few  of  the  marvellous 
details  revealed  by  consideration  of  a 
simple  round  hole  in  a  willow  stump. 
Unobservant  people  who  wander  in  the 


124  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

woodlands  may  perhaps  learn  from  this 
brief  history  of  a  queer  insect  that  there 
are  more  wonders  in  a  wood  than  the 
obvious  flowers  and  the  birds  ;  indeed,  to 
those  whose  perceptive  faculties  are  well- 
developed  every  hole  in  a  tree,  or  even  a 
leaf,  unfolds  a  story  of  its  own. 

Even  around  the  hole  we  have  studied 
another  curious  insect  life  story  com- 
mences, for  each  of  the  raised  dots  seen 
on  the  bark  in  Figs.  77,  78,  and  79  was 
once  a  living  insect,  but  one  which  lost 
its  limbs  and  became  sedentary  as  it 
sucked  away  at  the  juices  of  the  tree. 
Meanwhile,  as  it  increased  in  size,  scales 
of  wax  oozed  from  its  body  and  encased 
it,  finally  fixing  it  to  the  spot,  and  under 
which  it  perished — first,  however,  leaving 
its  batch  of  eggs,  from  which  its  six- 
legged  offspring  will  eventually  appear 
and  crawl  from  under  the  scales  of  their 
dead  parent's  body  to  roam  the  tree  and 
then  settle  down  as  other  scale-insects 
for  a  like  fate. 

Or  let  us  suppose  that  we  were  able 
to  spare  the  time  to  watch  the  various 
enemies  that  approached  the  entrance  hole 


THE    LONG-TAILED    ICHNEUMON    FLY, 


WITH  PEN  AND  CAMERA  125 

to  the  caterpillar's  boring  during  the  two 
years  or  thereabouts  in  which  it  was 
feeding,  what  strange  stories  we  could 
relate  !  I  can  only  refer  to  one  of  such 
visitors  here — that  illustrated  in  Plate  X. 

There  we  have  another  wasp-like  insect, 
with  what  looks  like  an  enormous  sting, 
with  which  it  probes  the  hole,  persevering 
until  it  has  completely  penetrated  the 
caterpillar's  barricades,  and  then  depart- 
ing. The  caterpillar  would  remain  quite 
unharmed,  but  not  for  long,  for  that  long 
"  sting"  was  really  an  ovipositor  or  tube  for 
placing  eggs  into  the  boring,  from  which 
hungry  grubs  would  hatch  and  prey 
upon  the  caterpillar.  Surely,  then,  we 
cannot  wonder  at  its  double  barricades. 

The  attacking  insect  is  known  as  an 
Ichneumon  fly,  and  is  a  species  but  seldom 
seen  in  the  British  Isles,  although  I  found 
and  photographed  the  insect  here  illus- 
trated in  this  country.  On  the  Continent 
it  is  a  much  more  familiar  insect,  and 
there  the  Hornet-moth  consequently  has 
a  greater  need  for  its  wood  and  silk 
defences,  which  may  sometimes  prevent 
such  attacks.  In  this  country  the  cater- 


126  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

pillar  still  constructs  its  strong  barriers 
against  less  formidable  foes  and  the 
possible  danger  of  a  casual,  visitor  such  as 
the  one  illustrated. 


CHAPTER   X 

THE   LIFE-STORY  OF  THE   PAINTED 
LADY    BUTTERFLY 

(Pyrameis  cardui) 

RARELY  can  a  butterfly  be  said  to 
be  cosmopolitan,  but  the  Painted 
Lady  almost  achieves  that  distinction,  for 
it  is  found  (and  often  abundantly)  in 
almost  every  country  in  the  world,  except- 
ing, perhaps,  the  Arctic  regions  and 
South  America.  Although  the  insect  fre- 
quently occurs  in  large  numbers,  yet  the 
irregularity  of  its  appearance  is  striking. 
Sometimes,  for  several  consecutive  years, 
the  butterfly  collector  diligently  searches 
in  vain  for  specimens ;  then  some  day 
unexpectedly,  as  he  saunters  along,  he  is 
overjoyed  at  the  sight  of  one  of  these 
handsome  insects  on  the  wing.  With 
net  in  hand  he  wildly  pursues  it,  and 
the  butterfly  eventually  alight^  in  a 


127 


128  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

meadow  near  by,  where  thistle  or  clover- 
blooms  abound.  Imagine,  though,  the 
astonishment  of  the  collector  when,  after 
carefully  approaching  the  spot,  he  finds 
resting  on  nearly  every  flower  a  Painted 
Lady  Butterfly — a  multitude  of  them 
before  his  eyes.  Such  an  incident  has 
happened  to  many  entomologists  in  nearly 
every  corner  of  the  earth.  Where  the 
insects  come  from  so  suddenly  after, 
perhaps,  years  of  absence,  has  long  been 
a  puzzle.  However,  the  fact  that  these 
insects  migrate  is  now  well  established ; 
and  this  habit  of  migration,  leading 
small  or  large  groups  to  take  advantage 
of  suitable  winds  for  the  journey,  probably 
accounts  for  the  cosmopolitan  distribution 
of  the  species,  and  at  the  same  time  for 
its  numerical  strength,  for  the  race  must 
naturally  benefit  by  dispersal  of  its  super- 
fluous numbers  to  fields  and  pastures 
new. 

Having  now  accounted  for  the  sudden 
and  extraordinary  appearance  of  the 
butterfly,  we  may  proceed  to  consider  the 
details  in  the  life-history  of  an  individual. 

It  was  in  the  early  morning  of  the  8th 


WITH  PEN  AND  CAMERA  129 

of  June — the  year  need  not  concern  us — 
when  one  of  these  butterflies  suddenly  put 
in  an  appearance  on  the  English  coast  at 
Folkestone,  and  selected  its  pitch  of  land 
— for  an  attachment  to  a  particular  area, 
or  stretch  of  land,  about  which  they  often 
career  for  several  days  together,  is  another 
curious  characteristic  of  this  species  of 
butterfly.  So  our  butterfly  kept  up 
the  traditions  of  its  race,  and  boldly 
manoeuvred  to  and  fro  over  its  selected 
plot,  occasionally  resting  and  sunning 
itself  on  the  tops  of  some  tall  thistles, 
where  the  charming  chestnut  browns  and 
reds  of  its  wings,  contrasted  with  the 
black  and  white  of  their  fore-parts,  gave 
it  a  most  fascinating  appearance. 

After  it  had  worked  off  some  of  its 
superabundant  energy,  and  had  sampled 
the  various  kinds  of  nectar  from  most  of 
the  flowers  that  grew  in  its  domains,  this 
Painted  Lady  (for  such  she  was  in  the 
strict  sense  of  the  word)  proceeded  to 
business.  She  made  a  kind  of  slow,  cir- 
cular tour  amongst  a  clump  of  thistles 
and  nettles  which  were  growing  together, 
fluttering  from  plant  to  plant,  and  moving 

9 


130  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

amongst  their  leaves  as  if  engaged  on  a 
botanical  investigation.  A  careful  exami- 
nation of  a  leaf  on  which  the  butterfly 
had  been  at  work  revealed  some  tiny  pale 
green  bodies  dotted  over  its  surface — so 
small  that  four  or  five  could  com- 
fortably rest  on  the  head  of  a  pin. 
Nevertheless,  they  are  wonderfully  inter- 
esting little  objects — the  butterflies  eggs, 
indeed  ;  and  in  Fig.  86  some  are  shown 
as  seen  through  the  pocket  lens  of  the 
writer. 

Seeing  that  the  butterfly  herself  feeds 
on  the  sweet  nectar  of  the  flowers,  it  is 
quite  marvellous  how  she  knows  that  her 
offspring  will  need  green  thistle  and 
nettle  leaves  to  feed  upon ;  yet  with 
unerring  instinct  she  places  her  eggs 
amongst  the  leaves,  and,  apparently,  she 
does  not  consider  it  important  whether 
they  are  those  of  the  thistles  or  the 
nettles. 

Five  days  later  (June  I3th)  the  butter- 
fly had  disappeared.  Indeed,  it  was 
highly  probable  that  the  spark  of  life 
within  its  frail  structure  had  by  that 
time  succumbed  to  the  large  demands 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  131 

made  upon  it,  for  it  is  seldom  that  the 
insect  lives  for  many  hours  after  depositing 
its  numerous  eggs.  However,  the  safety 
of  her  species  was  ensured.  The  tiny 
and  prettily-decorated  eggs  which  she 
had  placed  so  carefully  and  systemati- 
cally amongst  the  leaves,  were  now 
bursting  open,  and  from  each  broken 
shell  emerged  a  little  caterpillar — a  baby 
Painted  Lady  ! 

These  insect  infants  were  greyish  in 
colour,  with  rather  large,  shiny  black 
heads,  and  covered  with  short  bristles, 
and,  of  course,  were  very  tiny  when 
they  first  appeared.  They  soon  proceeded 
to  business  and  made  inroads  into  the 
soft  parts  of  the  leaves,  and,  at  the  end 
of  a  fortnight,  their  bodies  darkened  in 
colour,  and  they  became  conspicuous 
about  the  food  plants  (Fig.  87).  A 
week  later  still,  they  were  exceedingly 
busy,  and  swarmed  about  the  nettles 
(Fig.  88) ;  and  the  following  week  (July 
loth)  the  caterpillars  were  full  grown 
(Fig.  89).  They  were  then  anything 
but  handsome,  their  only  decoration 
being  some  yellowish  markings  about 


132  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

their  bodies ;  but  not  the  slightest  indica- 
tion was  visible  that  they  were  presently 
to  become  lovely  butterflies. 

Eventually,   one   of  the   larvae   stopped 
feeding,   and,   after    carefully    selecting    a 
suitable     site    beneath    a    leaf    stalk,    it 
slowly    proceeded    to    spin    a    silken   pad 
or   cushion   to   it,    finally   attaching   itself 
to   this   cushion   by   its   tail  claspers.     In 
this  way  it  suspended  itself  upside  down, 
and     there     it     hung     a    most    dejected- 
looking    object    (Fig.    90).     After    it    had 
been    so    hanging    for    a    few    hours,    it 
commenced    to    squirm    and    wriggle    its 
body,    when    its    skin    near    the    back    of 
its  head  suddenly  burst  open.     Then  the 
caterpillar    moulted    its    skin,   for    as    the 
body    wriggled    the    skin    slowly    shrunk 
up    towards    its    tail-end,    where    it    was 
attached  to   the  silken  cushion.     Illustra- 
tion   Fig.   91    shows    this    process   taking 
place,    just    at    the    half-way    stage.     At 
the   end   of   four    minutes    the    shrunken 
skin   was    free,  but    it   could  not  yet   fall 
away,   for   it  still  had  to  be   freed  at   the 
point   of    attachment    to   the    stem   (Fig. 
92).     Presently,    though,    the    developing 


86.  Eggs  of  the  Painted  Lady  Butterfly — magnified. 

87.  The  little  Caterpillars  on  the  nettle  leaves. 

88.  The  Caterpillars  when  three  weeks  old. 

89.  When  four  weeks  old  they  were  full-grown, 
go.  Preparing  to  become  a  Chrysalis. 

91.  Moulting  its  skin. 

92.  The  skin  cast  at  the  end  of  four  minutes. 

93.  The  Chrysalis. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  133 

insect  detached  itself,  let  the  skin  drop 
to  the  ground,  and  then  re-attached 
itself  to  the  silken  pad  (Fig.  93).  This 
seems  a  very  extraordinary  feat,  for, 
apparently,  the  insect  must  loosen  its 
hold  while  allowing  its  cast  skin  to  fall. 
However,  close  examination  shows  that 
at  the  extremity  of  the  body  are  numer- 
ous minute  hooks  by  means  of  which  the 
insect  attaches  itself  to  the  silken  pad. 
It,  therefore,  probably  detaches  some  of 
the  hooks  while  the  others  remain  con- 
nected, and  so  the  skin  is  gradually  passed 
over  the  point  of  attachment  and  falls  to 
the  ground.  We  no  longer  then  have  a 
caterpillar  to  consider,  but  a  pupa,  or 
chrysalis — the  next  stage  of  the  insect's 
development. 

The  chrysalis  is  at  first  of  a  greyish 
colour,  but  when  it  has  been  hanging  for 
a  few  hours  its  angles  become  burnished, 
and  it  then  presents  metallic  shades  of 
various  hues :  green,  crimson,  gold,  and 
silver,  according  to  the  position  from 
which  it  is  viewed. 

On  July  nth  two  larvae  became  chrysa- 
lides at  almost  the  same  time,  beneath 


134  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  cleaned  central  vein  of  a  thistle  leaf 
on  which  they  had  been  feeding  (Fig. 
94),  and  there  these  pupae  hung  motionless 
for  twelve  days  (July  23rd).  But  not 
until  the  end  of  that  time  did  it  become 
obvious  that  some  further  development 
was  taking  place.  The  chrysalides  then 
lost  their  metallic  splendour  and  became 
greasy,  and  through  the  outer  skin  the 
coloured  wings  of  the  butterflies,  now 
almost  ready  to  appear,  became  visible. 

So  few  persons  have  seen  a  butterfly 
emerge  from  its  chrysalis  into  the  world 
of  sunlight,  that  here  was  an  opportunity 
not  to  be  missed.  To  seize  the  oppor- 
tunity, however,  was  not  so  simple  as  it 
seemed.  Although  we  know  from  external 
happenings  that  the  butterfly  is  almost 
ready  to  appear,  yet  just  when  it  will 
emerge  we  are  quite  unable  to  foretell. 
Therefore,  we  have  to  wait  Nature's  time. 
This  waiting  sometimes  becomes  tiresome, 
for  the  butterfly  may  appear  at  any 
moment  during  about  twenty-four  hours 
from  the  time  the  chrysalis  changes  its 
colour ;  occasionally  the  butterfly  emerges 
almost  at  once,  while  others  may  wait  the 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  135 

whole  of  the  twenty-four  hours,  or  even 
longer ;  so  that  there  is  no  criterion  as 
to  the  exact  time  when  the  insect  will 
appear.  It  is,  therefore,  essential  that  a 
careful  and  persistent  watch  should  be 
kept  upon  the  chrysalis,  especially  as  the 
butterfly  only  occupies  a  few  seconds 
in  making  its  emergence  and  then  very 
quickly  extends  its  wings. 

After  six  hours  of  waiting,  one  of  the 
chrysalides  under  observation  suddenly 
moved— just  a  slight  jerk.  Then  the 
broad  end  gently  bulged  and  burst  open. 
Through  the  opening  immediately  appeared 
the  head  of  the  butterfly,  quickly  followed 
by  the  forelegs,  by  means  of  which  the 
insect  gripped  the  stem  and  so  assisted 
in  more  comfortably  extricating  its  latter 
parts  (Fig.  95).  A  moment  later  it  was 
on  the  stem,  leaving  behind  it  the  broken 
and  empty  chrysalis  skin  (Fig.  96)  ;  and 
in  this  way  the  chrysalis  changed  to  a 
butterfly. 

How  disappointing,  though,  is  our  but- 
terfly. It  has  dumpy  wings,  looks  like  a 
cripple,  and  is  altogether  unlike  the  parent 
butterfly  that  so  gaily  flashed  its  colours 


136  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

in  the  sunlight !  Almost  immediately 
that  thought  occurs  to  us  our  butterfly 
begins  to  grow  in  beauty  before  our 
eyes.  Its  dumpy  wings  lengthen  out 
and  begin  to  reveal  their  charming  colours 
(Figs.  97  and  98) ;  indeed,  the  whole 
process  is  a  delightful  transformation 
scene  in  miniature.  Yet  there  is  no  doubt 
about  its  reality  ;  there  the  butterfly  hangs 
on  the  stem  of  the  plant — a  lovely  insect 
that  a  few  moments  before  was  appar- 
ently a  dry  and  lifeless  object. 

There,  then,  the  butterfly  hung,  clinging 
by  its  legs,  its  wings  dangling  in  space, 
for  they  were  limp  and  wet  and  quite 
unfit  for  flight.  At  the  end  of  an  hour, 
though,  things  had  changed.  It  was  then 
obvious  that  the  wings  were  no  longer 
wet  and  flimsy,  for  they  had  dried  rigid 
and  bore  quite  a  trim  and  neat  appear- 
ance (Fig  99),  and,  what  is  more,  they 
were  also  under  muscular  control.  This 
latter  fact  soon  became  apparent.  It  was 
nearly  mid-day,  and  the  bright  sunshine 
was  particularly  attractive  to  this  creature 
of  the  sunlight  whose  birth  we  have  wit- 
nessed. Indeed,  its  frail  form  was  so 


94-  Two  Chrysalides. 

95.  One  of  the  Chrysalides  suddenly  bursts  open. 

96.  A  moment  later  the  Butterfly  was  on  the  stem. 

97.  It  begins  to  grow  in  beauty. 

98.  The  wings  lengthening  out. 

99.  At  the  end  of  an  hour  it  was  ready  for  flight. 

100.  Away  it  travelled  up  the  stem. 

101.  It  opened  wide  its  wings  and  revealed  their  lovely-  colours. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  137 

crammed  with  the  joyousness  of  life  that 
it  could  not  afford  to  waste  a  moment  of 
the  golden  time.  Instantly  the  wings 
were  under  control,  the  butterfly  became 
impatient.  Its  feelers  quivered,  its  legs 
moved  rapidly  to  and  fro,  and  finally  its 
wings  began  to  flutter ;  and  it  was  at 
that  instant  when  the  butterfly  seemed  to 
realize  that  it  possessed  a  new  and  won- 
derful power.  Restraint  then  was  out  of 
the  question ;  away  it  travelled  up  the 
stem  (Fig.  100)  to  the  topmost  point,  and 
there  it  took  its  first  outlook  upon  the 
new  world  of  space  it  had  to  conquer. 
The  erstwhile  caterpillar  that  filled  up 
every  moment  of  its  existence  in  search- 
ing for  and  devouring  green  leaves,  allow- 
ing intervals  for  resting,  was  as  dead  and 
forgotten  as  if  it  had  never  been.  Here 
was  a  creature  whose  food  consisted  of 
the  sweet  nectar  of  the  flowers,  and  who 
would  never  eat  a  green  leaf  while  it 
lived,  for  it  lost  its  mandibles  when  it 
threw  off  its  last  caterpillar  skin,  and 
now  it  had  only  a  long,  coiled  sucking 
proboscis  which  it  unrolled  to  search  the 
depths  of  the  flowers.  Its  outlook  on  life 


138  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

evidently  gave  it  much  satisfaction,  for  it 
suddenly  opened  wide  its  wings  and 
revealed  the  lovely  colours  of  their  upper 
surface  (Fig.  101).  Where  and  how  it 
got  those  marvellous  organs  with  all 
their  wondrous  hues  was  quite  a  mystery. 
Evidently  green  leaves  were  the  working 
basis  for  their  production,  yet  that  know- 
ledge does  nothing  towards  explaining  the 
mystery. 

The  opening  of  the  wings  was  but  a 
preliminary  movement.  After  the  butter- 
fly had  sunned  itself  for  a  few  minutes, 
it  quietly  pushed  off  from  the  stem  into 
space.  It  did  not  at  first  fly  very  far, 
but  after  a  short  rest  it  again  rose  on  its 
wings,  and  then  that  same  bold  flight 
that  characterized  the  parent  butterfly 
when  it  careered  over  its  selected  plot 
near  the  sea-coast  was  reproduced  almost 
exactly. 

Yes,  our  butterfly,  at  least,  was  safely 
launched,  but  what  would  happen  after- 
wards? Probably  several  days  would  be 
occupied  in  the  simple  pleasures  of  but- 
terfly life,  such  as  frolics  in  the  sunlight 
with  its  brothers  and  sisters  that  appear 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  139 

about  the  same  time,  and  imbibing  all  the 
sweet  nectars  from  the  various  flowers. 
Or  there  may  be  love-making,  for  any 
day  suitable  winds  may  bring  a  few  or  a 
multitude  of  its  species  to  its  near  neigh- 
bourhood, and  amongst  such  visitors  may, 
of  course,  come  its  mate.  As  we  have 
seen,  the  development  of  the  butterfly 
occupies  only  about  six  weeks,  so  that 
even  in  the  short  British  summer  there 
would  be  time  for  another  generation  to 
appear.  Another  possible  happening  is 
that  some  day  when  the  brother  and 
sister  butterflies  are  sunning  themselves, 
a  strong  wind  may  commence  to  blow, 
so  strongly  that  with  almost  one  consent 
the  butterflies  will  rise  and  drift  before  it, 
and  so  be  carried  high  and  driven  onwards 
and  onwards,  until  at  last  the  strongest 
fliers  of  the  family  that  remain  will  find 
that  the  wind  has  ceased  to  blow,  and 
that  they  have  come  nearer  to  the  earth. 
So  tired  are  they  from  their  long,  forced 
flight  that  they  all  alight.  Of  course, 
they  may  have  dropped  in  some  remote 
part  of  Europe  or  Africa,  or  elsewhere  ; 
but  that  does  not  matter  in  the  slightest 


140  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

so  long  as  nettles  or  thistles,  or  similar 
food  plants  for  their  offspring,  are  to  be 
found  there  together  with  warm  sunshine 
— those  are  all  the  things  they  need. 

Perhaps,  too,  the  same  strong  wind 
will  have  brought  to  the  same  place 
others  of  their  species,  among  whom  they 
will  find  mates  that  have  also  stood  the 
test  of  a  journey ;  and  in  this  way,  by 
the  natural  law  of  heredity,  a  race  of  still 
better  fliers  will  be  forthcoming  for  the 
journeys  of  the  future.  In  this  manner, 
from  small  beginnings,  the  species  may 
have  developed  an  instinct  to  fly  before  a 
strong  wind  ;  and  as  the  species  have 
benefited  by  the  habit  (because  it  extends 
the  area  over  which  the  insect  is  dispersed, 
and  thus  enlarges  its  opportunities  in 
life)  so  it  naturally  follows  that  the  habit 
has  become  inherent,  and  thus  we  find 
that  the  Painted  Lady  can  now  claim 
almost  the  whole  world  as  its  home. 


CHAPTER   XI 

FLEAS  (Pulex) 

r  I  ^HE  entomologist  is  able  to  produce 
JL  evidence  which  tends  to  show  that 
fleas  were  once  two-winged  flies,  which, 
owing  to  the  development  of  the  parasitic 
habit,  have  so  completely  lost  their 
functionless  wings,  that  even  the  entomo- 
logist himself  can  now  scarcely  trace  their 
rudiments.  That  explanation  probably 
throws  some  light  on  the  manner  in  which 
the  various  flea  species  became  associated 
with  special  and  widely-removed  hosts, 
for  coming  of  a  family  of  winged  flies  they 
would  have  ample  opportunity  of  seeking 
and  selecting  those  animals  best  adapted 
to  their  requirements. 

It  follows,  therefore,  that  there  are  fleas 
and  fleas.  The  dog  flea  is  not  the  same 
species  as  that  which  patronizes  the 


142  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

domestic  cat ;  and  the  common  flea  which 
inflicts  its  surprise  attacks  upon  mankind 
without  the  slightest  respect  of  person, 
is  still  another  distinct  species ;  indeed, 
each  kind  more  or  less  severely  restricts  its 
attentions  to  its  respective  host — although 
an  occasional  misadventure  may  prompt 
a  species  to  make  the  best  of  a  bad 
job. 

Remarkable  as  it  may  seem,  monkeys 
probably  approach  the  nearest  to  freedom 
from  external  parasitic  visitors.  They 
are  not  infested  by  fleas  ;  and  pediculi,  or 
lice,  are  but  very  rarely  found  upon  them. 
That  they  often  appear  to  be  cleaning  their 
fur  (or  perhaps  more  often  that  of  their 
nearest  neighbour)  from  these  pests  is 
true,  but  observation  has  shown  that  they 
remove  only  bits  of  scurf  and  similar 
secretions  from  the  skin.  Indeed,  it  is 
this  very  habit  of  picking  particles  from 
the  coat  of  each  other  by  means  of  their 
sensitive  fingers  and  opposable  thumb,  that 
has  prevented  parasitic  organisms  from 
establishing  themselves  upon  them  as 
permanent  and  specialized  species.  Other 
animals,  which  have  only  been  able  to 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  143 

scratch  and  rub  themselves  when  attacked, 
have  fallen  ready  hosts  to  numerous 
species. 

With  the  parasitic  habit  degeneration 
necessarily  commences.  It  does  not 
follow,  however,  that  the  subsequent 
development  of  an  organism  which  falls 
from  the  standard  of  its  race,  is  without 
complexity.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a  glance 
at  the  anatomy  of  a  flea  (Figs.  102-4)  very 
conclusively  shows  how  intricate  and  com- 
plex its  evolution  has  been  while  on  its 
downward  path. 

With  the  loss  of  its  wings  a  marvellous 
development  of  the  legs  has  taken  place 
(Fig.  105) ;  indeed,  fleas  are  the  greatest 
jumpers  known  in  nature — although  the 
locusts  run  them  closely  in  this  respect. 
The  human  flea  has  developed  the  jumping 
habit  to  a  greater  perfection  than  some 
of  the  species  which  are  found  on  the 
lower  animals.  If  a  man  of  about  six  feet 
in  height  was  as  expert  in  jumping  as  the 
human  flea,  he  would  cover  a  mile  in  four 
springs  and  would  reach  an  altitude  of 
nearly  200  feet  each  leap. 

The   hedgehog   is   an   animal   which    is 


144  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

very  abundantly  supplied  with  parasites, 
and  amongst  these  it  possesses  its  own 
particular  flea  (Fig.  104).  And,  with 
regard  to  this  insect,  I  was  somewhat 
surprised  a  short  time  ago  to  discover 
that,  when  placed  on  the  ground,  it  rarely 
attempts  to  jump,  although  it  is  provided 
with  powerful  jumping  legs. 

A  hedgehog  I  had  in  my  garden  had 
been  in  hibernation  for  the  winter  months 
and  had  reappeared,  much  to  the  delight 
of  my  small  boy,  who  the  previous  summer 
had  made  a  pet  of  it.  When  visitors 
came,  he  got  it  out  from  its  hiding-place  to 
show  them.  One  day  fleas  were  found  to 
be  swarming  upon  it,  although  none 
had  been  noticed  previously.  They  were 
in  such  abundance  that  they  fell  from  it 
whenever  it  was  handled ;  and  it  was  owing 
to  that  fact  that  I  made  the  discovery  of 
this  flea's  curious  habit  of  rarely  ever 
jumping  when  on  the  ground. 

The  boy  had  taken  the  hedgehog  in  the 
kitchen,  and  consequently  a  search  had  to 
be  made.  It  had  been  exhibited  on  a 
wooden  table,  and  also  on  a  linoleum- 
covered  floor,  both  of  which  places  pro- 


!06 


102.  Female  Flea  of  Rat. 

103.  Male  Flea  of  Great  Xoctule  Bat. 

104.  Male  Flea  of  Hedgehog. 

105.  Part  of  one  of  the  jumping  legs  of  a  Flea,  showing  muscles 

of  the  thigh. 

106.  Pygidium  of  a  Flea,  highly  magnified.      This  object  is  seen 

on  the  end  segment  of  the  body  of  the  Flea  shown  in  102. 


WITH  PEN  AND    CAMERA  145 

vided  a  dozen  or  so  fleas,  although  the 
search  was  not  made  until  half  an  hour 
had  elapsed ;  indeed,  the  fleas  simply 
hopped  round  and  about  each  other, 
remaining  more  or  less  on  the  same 
ground.  The  discovery  of  this  curious 
characteristic  led  me  to  make  some  experi- 
ments, and  I  found  that  at  the  end  of  an 
hour  even,  these  fleas  remained  on  the 
ground  where  they  lost  their  host. 

The  explanation  of  this  peculiarity  is,  I 
think,  associated  with  the  habits  of  the 
flea's  host.  The  hedgehog  usually  has  a 
regular  track  to  his  hiding-place,  and 
ground  freshly  dug  will  readily  show  its 
track  even  the  next  morning,  for  its  feet 
quickly  flatten  down  the  soil  where  it  runs. 
Consequently,  when  the  hedgehog  flea 
loses  its  host,  its  safest  policy  is  to  remain 
on  the  track  until  the  hedgehog  returns 
(for  it  runs  over  its  track  many  times 
throughout  the  night),  when,  I  have  no 
doubt,  it  can  jump  quite  well.  That,  I 
think,  is  the  explanation  of  the  hedgehog 
flea's  peculiar  habit.  I  may  also  add  that 
I  do  not  think  the  hedgehog  flea  will 
migrate  to  man. 

10 


146  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Fleas,   therefore,   are    not    only    highly 
evolved   in   structure    for    their    work    as 
parasites,  but  correspondingly  so  in  their 
habits  ;    for  doubtless,   each   species   pos- 
sesses   characteristics    associated   with   its 
particular    host.     The    flea    of    the     fowl 
presents  a  similar  example  of  a  flea  which 
does  not   leap  ;  it,    however,  runs  swiftly. 
The  body  of  these  degenerate  insects  has, 
likewise,    become  marvellously  adapted  to 
their  requirements.     It    is    clothed    in    a 
suit   of  mail,    perfect  in  fit  and  rhythmic 
in   action.     Its   horny   segments   are  pro- 
vided with  bristles  all  pointing  backwards, 
and  it  is  these  bristles,  combined  with  its 
smooth  surface,  which  account  for  the  flea's 
extraordinary   power   of  slipping   through 
closely-pressed  fingers ;  for,  if  it  can  only 
wriggle   forward,    these    bristly    segments 
prevent  it  from  slipping  back  again.     Also, 
the   body   is   laterally    compressed,    being 
so  flat  that  it  can  bear  enormous  pressure 
on  the  soft  body  of  its  victim  without  ill 
effects.     This  compression    of  the  body  is 
common    to  many  forms   of  animal  para- 
sites, but  the  fleas  are  remarkable  for  their 
lateral  flattening,  for  the   bodies   of  most 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  147 

other  forms  of  parasites  are  compressed 
from  above  and  below. 

On  the  terminal  segment  of  a  flea's  body 
is  seen  the  curious  organ  known  as  the 
"pygidium"  (Fig.  106).  This  is  a  most 
extraordinary  piece  of  mechanism  when 
seen  highly  magnified,  being  provided  with 
disc-like  orifices  from  which  arise  long, 
sensitive  bristles.  It  is  very  doubtful 
what  sensory  function  this  organ  serves, 
but  it  has  been  shown,  with  some  prob- 
ability, that  it  represents  the  flea's  auditory 
apparatus. 

It  now  remains  to  consider  the  head  of 
the  flea,  for  in  this  part  of  its  anatomy  are 
contained  the  weapons  with  which  it 
inflicts  its  so-called  "  bite,"  which  is  really 
a  minute  puncture  opened  by  a  pair  of 
strong  and  flexible  knives  toothed  along 
both  their  edges.  These  blades  vary 
somewhat  in  form  in  the  fleas  of  different 
animals  (Figs.  107  and  108),  and  between 
them  is  a  suctorial  tongue,  also  coarsely 
toothed,  by  means  of  which  the  flea  in- 
creases and  absorbs  the  flow  of  blood  from 
the  wound  made  by  the  saw-like  lancets. 

The    whole    head    is    covered     with    a 


148  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

polished  helmet  (Fig.  109),  and  bears  an 
eye  on  each  side.  The  eyes  are  not  pro- 
vided with  many  facets,  like  those  of 
insects  generally,  but  consist  of  a  single 
round  lens  backed  with  a  very  black 
pigment.  Behind  the  eyes  are  the  minute 
antennae,  or  feelers ;  while  in  front  of  the 
head  there  is  a  much  larger  pair  of  jointed 
mouth-feelers,  which  probably  serve  to 
direct  the  flea  where  to  apply  its  lancets. 
The  flea,  like  other  insects,  deposits 
eggs,  which  are  of  a  comparatively  large 
size,  and  in  the  case  of  the  human  flea 
twelve  is  a  maximum  batch.  The  larvae 
which  hatch  from  the  eggs  are  bristly, 
worm-like  animals,  and  they  will  feed  on 
almost  any  organic  dust  and  dirt  that 
happens  to  be  near,  such  as  that  rubbed 
from  clothes,  fur,  feathers,  etc. ;  they  will 
also  thrive  on  powdered  breadcrumbs  and 
similar  food  materials.  As  a  consequence, 
they  are  often  reared  between  the  boards 
of  houses  where  floors  are  left  unswrept. 
After  ten  or  twelve  days'  feeding  they 
change  into  the  pupa  stage,  and  a  week 
later  emerge  as  perfect  fleas.  In  cold 
weather  their  development  takes  longer. 


109 


io;.    Mouth-parts  and  toothed  lancets  of  a  Rabbit  Flea. 

108.  Toothed  lancets  and  mouth  "feelers"  of  the  Human  Flea. 

109.  Head  and  fore-parts  of  the  Human  Flea. 


WITH  PEN  AND  CAMERA  149 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  human  flea 
proper,  although  common  in  Europe  yet 
does  not  thrive  in  America,  and  is  there 
very  rare.  A  common  species  which 
infests  both  the  cat  and  dog  there,  ^how- 
ever, also  becomes  a  pest  in  houses. 

There  are  a  hundred  or  more  kinds  of 
fleas  known  to  infest  mammals  and  birds, 
yet  each  species  more  or  less  severely 
restricts  its  attention  to  the  animal  of 
its  own  selection ;  thus  the  cat,  dog, 
hedgehog,  bat,  squirrel,  mole,  fowl,  pigeon, 
etc.,  each  have  their  own  specific  flea. 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE   MAGPIE   MOTH   AND   ITS   PARASITES 

A  MONGST  those  insects  that  work 
/""V  mischief  in  the  gardens  and  fruit- 
farms,  the  Magpie,  Currant,  or  Gooseberry 
Moth  (Abraxas  grossulariatd),  as  it  is 
variously  called,  holds  a  very  prominent 
place.  The  British  Board  of  Agriculture 
have,  indeed,  found  it  necessary  to  issue  a 
leaflet  giving  methods  of  prevention  from, 
and  remedies  for,  the  attacks  of  this 
destructive  insect. 

The  moth  appears  about  midsummer, 
and  it  frequently  flies  during  daylight. 
Its  wings  are  white,  bearing  numerous 
deep  brown  or  black  spots  and  blotches 
together  with  some  yellow  markings  ;  con- 
sequently, it  is  a  very  conspicuous  insect. 
It  derives  its  popular  name,  Magpie  Moth, 
from  the  bold  markings  of  its  wings,  while 
its  other  familiar  names  have  reference  to 


150 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  151 

the  plants  upon  which  it  works  so  much 
havoc  during  its  larval  period. 

Some  of  the  eggs  of  the  moth  are  shown 
in  Fig.  no  magnified  twenty  diameters. 
They  are  somewhat  oval  in  shape,  and 
their  shell  structure  bears  a  silvery  appear- 
ance and  is  beautifully  reticulated  with  a 
delicate  pattern,  which  is  revealed  by 
means  of  a  magnifying  lens,  as  the  illus- 
tration shows.  Although  the  tiny  eggs 
have  so  attractive  an  appeararce  under  the 
lens,  it  is  nevertheless  from  these  little 
objects  that  the  fruit  -  grower's  trouble 
arises.  When  the  female  moth  has  once 
deposited  her  numerous  eggs  amongst  the 
leaves  of  gooseberry  or  currant  bushes,  it 
becomes  a  difficult  task  indeed  to  protect 
the  foliage  of  the  bushes  from  being  more 
or  less  completely  stripped  later  on. 

In  ten  or  eleven  days  after  the  eggs  are 
deposited,  the  little  caterpillars  emerge, 
and  at  this  stage  are  so  small  that  they 
escape  notice.  Their  feeding  at  this  period 
does  but  little  harm,  and  towards  the  end 
of  August,  or  early  in  September,  they 
give  up  feeding  and  spin  bits  of  leaves 
together  on  the  ground  beneath  the  bushes. 


152  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

Later,  falling  leaves  afford  them  further 
protection,  and  so  they  spend  the  winter 
months. 

The  fruit-grower  has  probably  failed  to 
observe  the  advent  of  his  enemy,  but  it  is 
in  the  following  spring  that  he  detects  the 
mischief  that  is  being  done  to  his  trees. 
Just  when  the  branches  are  becoming 
clothed  with  new  leafage,  numerous  dark- 
coloured  caterpillars  may  be  seen  biting 
out  the  hearts  of  the  buds  (Fig.  in),  and 
should  these  destructive  larvae  be  neglected 
at  this  stage,  the  branches  will  quickly 
be  denuded  of  their  leaves,  and  the  fruit 
crop  for  that  season  ruined. 

So  ravenously  do  the  caterpillars  feed 
after  their  winter  hibernation  that  often  by 
the  first  week  in  May  they  are  full-fed. 
Some  full-grown  larvae  are  shown  in  Fig. 
1 1 2.  They  are  of  a  cream  colour,  striped 
along  the  sides  of  their  bodies  with  orange- 
yellow,  and  bearing  large  black  spots 
along  the  back ;  indeed,  they  are  coloured 
very  similarly  to  the  moth  which  they 
eventually  become. 

Now  these  contrast  and  conspicuous 
colours  play  a  very  important  part  in  the 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  153 

economy  of  this  insect.  Both  the  moth 
and  the  caterpillar  make  no  attempt  at 
concealment,  but  expose  themselves  boldly 
before  their  enemies  ;  they  rely  entirely  on 
their  gay  and  conspicuous  colouring  to 
warn  off  their  foes.  While  many  insect 
species  depend  for  protection  upon  a  more 
or  less  perfect  simulation  of  their  sur- 
roundings, whereby  they  become  incon- 
spicuous, the  Magpie  Moth,  throughout 
all  its  stages  in  its  development,  takes  the 
contrary  course,  and  flaunts  its  colours 
before  the  eyes  of  its  enemies,  thus  making 
itself  as  conspicuous  as  possible. 

Such  showy  colours  are  generally  asso- 
ciated with  nauseous  and  distasteful  pro- 
perties, and  insectivorous  animals  are 
consequently  warned  from  making  an 
attack  upon  species  so  coloured.  A  frog 
or  a  toad  seeing  one  of  these  caterpillars 
in  motion,  may  snap  it  up  greedily,  but 
will  quickly  reject  it  again,  and  nothing 
will  thereafter  persuade  that  frog  or  toad 
to  touch  another  similar  larva.  Probably 
that  first  attack  was  wholly  the  outcome  of 
inexperience. 

This   caterpillar   is    also   distasteful    to 


154  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

birds,  spiders,  and  many  other  enemies, 
and  being  thus  enabled  to  escape  from  the 
attacks  of  some  of  the  most  formidable 
foes  that  prey  upon  caterpillar  species,  it 
naturally  thrives  apace  and  often  becomes 
a  serious  pest,  owing  to  its  destructive 
work  while  feeding. 

It  happens,  however,  that  whenever  an 
organism  outstrips  its  natural  foes,  and 
becomes  too  dominant  in  the  struggle  for 
existence,  newr  enemies  arise  to  check  its 
ravages  and  restore  the  lost  balance  of 
power.  So  it  occurs  that,  although  in 
some  seasons  we  may  find  the  leaves  of 
currant,  gooseberry,  or  plum-trees  being 
destroyed  by  innumerable  larvae  of  the 
Magpie  Moth,  it  does  not  follow  that  there 
will  be  numerous  moths  later  in  the 
season,  and  that  the  pest  will  thrive  and 
become  still  more  abundant  the  following 
season.  Probably,  by  the  time  the  moths 
should  have  developed,  Nature  will  have 
taken  measures  to  correct  the  defect  in  her 
working  scheme  that  has  allowed  an 
organism  too  decided  preponderance,  and 
will  have  checked  it  so  thoroughly  that, 
during  the  season  that  follows,  the  pre- 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  155 

dominant  species  may  become  quite  scarce. 
We  will  now,  then,  observe  how  any 
excessive  development  of  the  Magpie  Moth 
is  suppressed. 

Last  autumn  in  the  writer's  garden  some 
gooseberry  bushes  were  badly  attacked  by 
the  larvae  of  the  Magpie  Moth,  and  the 
caterpillars  fed  boldly  in  the  bright  sun- 
light, in  their  characteristic  manner. 
Now,  one  could  not  approach  these  bushes 
during  sunlight  without  finding  swarms 
of  what  were  apparently  common  house- 
flies  buzzing  round  and  congregating 
about  the  branches  and  amongst  the 
leaves.  This  fact  led  to  an  experiment. 

Some  of  the  full-fed  caterpillars  were 
collected  up  and  provided  with  some  dried 
stems  on  which  to  form  their  cocoons.  In 
the  upper  part  of  Fig.  1 13  two  of  the  larvae 
are  shown  in  their  delicate  silken  cocoons, 
in  which,  when  they  have  moulted  their 
skins,  they  change  to  the  pupa  or  chrysalis 
stage ;  while  below,  on  the  right,  another 
has  completed  its  change  into  a  chrysalis, 
its  shrunken  caterpillar  skin  being  seen 
near  it.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  photo- 
graph, on  the  left,  is  seen  another  cocoon 


156  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

in  which  appears  the  shrunken  skin  of  a 
caterpillar  and  three  comparatively  small 
chrysalides  of  oval  form. 

The  chrysalis  of  this  moth  is  banded 
black  and  yellow,  and  probably,  like  both 
the  caterpillar  and  the  moth,  it  derives  pro- 
tection from  its  bold  colouring  ;  indeed,  the 
very  frail  character  of  the  cocoon,  in  which 
the  chrysalis  is  clearly  exposed  to  view, 
points  to  that  conclusion. 

In  favourable  weather,  at  the  end  of 
three  to  four  weeks,  the  moth  is  ready  to 
appear,  bursting  its  chrysalis  skin  and  the 
silken  threads  of  its  cocoon,  and  appearing 
upon  the  branches  to  shake  out  the  folds 
from  its  wings  (Fig.  117).  It  does  not 
follow,  however,  that  such  a  successful 
issue  always  takes  place  ;  as  the  experi- 
ment previously  referred  to  made  clear. 

It  was  obvious  that  something  was  amiss 
in  the  cocoon  in  which  the  three  small 
pupae  appeared.  In  several  other  examples 
under  observation  the  same  thing  occurred, 
and,  after  seventeen  or  eighteen  days,  from 
each  of  these  little  chrysalides  there 
emerged  what  appeared  to  be  a  common 
house-fly.  A  closer  glance  at  these  insects 


no.    Eggs  of  the  Magpie  Moth — magnified. 

in.    Young  Caterpillars  of  the  Magpie  Moth  feeding  on  the  new 
foliage  of  the  gooseberry  tree. 

112.  Full-grown  Caterpillars  amongst  the  leaves. 

113.  Magpie  Moth  larvae  changing  to  chrysalides,  and,   in  the 

left  corner,  three  pupae  of  the  Tachina  Fly. 

114.  Two  chrysalides  of  the  Tachina   Fly,   with  flies   removed 

from  them.      Below  is  a  Tachina  Fly. 

115.  The   Ichneumon   Fly,   which   is   parasitic   upon  the   Cater- 

pillars of  the  Magpie  Moth. 

116.  Another  view  of  the  Ichneumon  Fly. 

117.  The  Magpie  Moth  just  emerged  from  its  chrysalis. 

118.  The  Spider-hunting  Wasp's  victim. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  157 

revealed  the  fact  that,  although  they 
resembled  house-flies,  yet  they  were  really 
only  near  relatives  of  those  familiar 
insects ;  a  species,  indeed,  whose  habits 
are  very  different. 

These  flies  belong  to  the  family  Tachi- 
nidce,  and  are  commonly  referred  to  as 
Tachina  flies.  There  are  numerous  species, 
most  of  which  in  general  appearance 
resemble  house-flies  (Fig.  114),  or  blow- 
flies. To  man  they  are  most  beneficial, 
as,  in  the  larva  stage,  they  prey  largely 
upon  caterpillars  which  feed  upon  his 
crops. 

Whenever  a  gooseberry,  currant,  sloe, 
or  other  bush,  on  which  numerous  cater- 
pillars are  seen  to  be  feeding,  is  surrounded 
by  a  buzzing  swarm  of  flies,  some  of  which 
are  continually  alighting  and  moving 
amongst  the  leaves,  it  will  be  found  that 
these  are  Tachina  flies.  Their  function  is 
to  seek  out  plump-bodied  caterpillars  and, 
by  means  of  a  gummy  substance,  to  fasten 
their  eggs  to  the  skins  of  the  larvae. 
From  the  egg  there  hatches  a  small 
maggot  which  penetrates  the  skin  of  the 
caterpillar,  and  feeds  internally  on  that 


158  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

insect  until  its  development  is  complete. 
The  caterpillar  develops  a  ravenous 
appetite,  but  the  nourishment  that  it 
absorbs  all  goes  to  benefit  its  internal 
boarders.  Finally,  when  the  caterpillar 
should  change  into  a  chrysalis,  it  usually 
has  about  sufficient  strength  left  to  con- 
struct its  cocoon,  which  is  the  closing  scene 
of  its  life.  The  parasites  within  then  con- 
sume the  vital  parts  of  their  host,  and 
this  final  meal  usually  suffices  to  complete 
their  development  ;  whereupon  they  break 
through  the  skin  of  the  caterpillar  that 
has  reared  them,  and  quickly  change  into 
pupae  within  the  silken  cocoon,  as  shown 
in  the  lower  example  on  the  left  in  Fig.  1 13. 
In  Fig.  114  two  of  these  pupae  are  shown 
side  by  side  with  the  flies  removed  from 
them,  and  below  a  fully-developed  fly. 

Not  infrequently  amongst  the  bushes 
where  Tachina  flies  are  abundant  the 
parasitic  Ichneumon  flies  will  also  be 
found.  These  are  hymenopterous  insects, 
possessing,  like  wasps  and  bees,  two  pairs 
of  wings,  a  feature  which  readily  distin- 
guishes them  from  the  dipterous,  or  two- 
winged,  Tachina  flies.  The  Ichneumons 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  159 

may  be  recognized  by  their  active  move- 
ments amongst  the  leaves,  their  long 
antennae  continually  twitching  and 
quivering  with  excitement  while  they 
seek  for  caterpillar  victims  on  which  to 
deposit  their  eggs ;  for  although  they 
belong  to  an  entirely  different  group  of 
insects  to  that  of  the  Tachina  flies,  yet 
their  method  of  attacking  leaf  -  eating 
caterpillars  for  egg-depositing  purposes, 
and  the  subsequent  development  of  their 
larvae,  is  very  similar. 

The  Ichneumon  flies,  however,  have 
probably  attained  a  much  higher  evolution 
than  the  Tachina  flies,  for  the  latter,  will 
attack  caterpillars  of  various  species  indis- 
criminately, and  also  the  larvae  of  beetles, 
humble-bees,  wasps,  and  insects  of  other 
orders,  and  not  infrequently  they  deposit 
more  eggs  on  a  larva  than  its  substance 
will  provide  for  their  maggots  ;  or  they  will 
even  place  their  eggs  on  a  caterpillar  that 
is  about  to  moult  its  skin,  with  the  result 
that  the  young  grubs  perish  when  hatched 
from  the  eggs. 

The  more  highly-evolved  Ichneumon 
flies,  however,  rarely  make  such  errors ; 


160  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

indeed,  a  particular  genus  or  species  of  these 
parasites  will  sometimes  prey  upon  only 
a  certain  family  of  insects,  so  that  a  cater- 
pillar may  have  its  special  Ichneumon  ;  or, 
if  it  is  an  abundant  species,  it  may  have 
several  Ichneumons  which  patronize  it  as 
their  special  host  for  the  rearing  of  their 
young. 

From  some  of  the  pupae  of  the  Magpie 
Moth  under  observation  in  the  experiment 
previously  referred  to,  the  Ichneumon 
species  illustrated  in  Figs.  115  and  116 
emerged,  one  fly  only  from  each  moth 
pupa.  The  slender  curved  waist,  attached 
to  the  lower  part  of  the  thorax,  the  long 
and  pointed  antennae,  and  the  fore-wings 
bearing  a  dark-coloured  triangular  spot, 
are  all  features  which  show  well  in  Fig. 
115,  and  which  should  be  observed  by  all 
amateur  entomologists  desirous  of  dis- 
tinguishing these  insects. 

When  one  has  realized  the  significance 
of  the  persistent  attacks  of  these  parasites 
combined  with  those  of  the  Tachina  flies,  it 
becomes  plain  that  the  larvae  of  the  Magpie 
Moth,  although  protected  by  their  colours 
from  many  dangerous  foes,  have  yet  even 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  161 

more  formidable  ones  to  contend  with  on 
which  their  warning  colours  exert  no 
influence.  So  it  happens  that  a  mighty 
host  of  leaf-eating  larvae  may  quickly 
become  converted  into  winged  Ichneumon 
and  Tachina  flies  instead  of  moths  ;  then 
it  may  occur  that  Ichneumon  or  Tachina 
flies  are  in  excess,  and  then  their  enemies 
in  turn  appear  in  abundance.  Thus  the 
balance  of  power  in  Nature  ever  needs  and 
receives  readjustment. 


ii 


CHAPTER  XIII 

A   SPIDER-HUNTING  WASP   AT   WORK 

THE  pretty  little  wasp  whose  actions 
are  here  described  was  resting  on 
a  thistle-leaf  while  arranging  her  toilet. 
For  fully  ten  minutes  she  had  been  so 
occupied,  and  now  was  smoothing  out  her 
fore-wings,  which  were  smoky  at  their 
tips,  excepting  a  conspicuous  pale-coloured 
spot.  She  was  barely  half  an  inch  in 
length,  with  a  shining  black  head  and 
thorax,  and  an  abdomen  two-thirds  red 
and  the  remaining  part  black. 

Unfortunately  I  am  unable  to  show  my 
readers  any  photographs  of  this  insect, 
for,  when  these  details  were  recorded,  my 
camera  was  some  miles  away  from  the 
spot,  and  a  visit  a  few  days  later  only 
provided  a  victim  of  one  of  these  wasps, 
which  is  showrn  in  Fig.  118. 

So  far  as  I   know,   this  particular  wasp 


IC>2 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  163 

has  no  common  name,  although  it,  or 
some  nearly  related  insect,  is,  I  think, 
known  as  the  Path-Wasp.  It,  however, 
belongs  to  a  family  of  solitary  wasps 
known  as  the  Pompilidce,  and  is  recognized 
by  the  entomologist  as  Pompilus  exaltatus. 
These  wasps  reveal  no  social  habits,  such 
as  those  of  the  species  described  in 
Chapter  V  ;  each  female  wasp  constructs 
her  own  nest  entirely  alone. 

The  day  was  very  warm,  and  suddenly 
the  sun  blazed  forth  from  behind  a  cloud, 
when  instantly  the  little  Wasp  struck  up 
a  shrill,  piping  note  and  darted  into  the 
air.  She  performed  a  peculiar  jerky  flight 
for  a  moment  or  two  and  then  returned 
to  the  thistle-leaf  again,  still  singing  her 
high-pitched  note  for  all  she  was  worth. 
She  did  not  rest,  but  travelled  rapidly 
along  the  leaf,  down  the  stem  to  the 
ground,  where  it  appeared  to  become  very 
excited,  although  at  first  it  was  not 
obvious  what  her  excitement  was  all  about. 

In  and  out  amongst  the  fallen  leaves 
near  the  ground  she  moved  with  each 
of  her  feelers  curved  at  the  tip  and 
quivering  and  bristling  with  activity.  She 


164  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

seemed  to  delight  in  rapidly  passing  be- 
neath any  leaves  which  were  conveniently 
placed,  appearing  on  the  opposite  side, 
and  then  turning  round  with  a  kind  of 
astonished  air  that  was  quite  amusing, 
piping  her  note  more  merrily  than  ever 
when  she  turned  and  looked  above  the 
leaf  beneath  which  she  had  passed.  Into 
any  little  holes  in  the  soil  that  appeared 
this  lively  insect  promptly  popped  her 
head,  withdrawing  it  almost  as  quickly  ; 
indeed,  the  whole  of  her  movements 
seemed  to  indicate  that  she  was  in  a 
most  terrible  hurry. 

In  the  course  of  five  or  six  minutes 
her  search  had  covered  several  yards  of 
ground,  every  leaf-fold  and  crevice  in  that 
area  being  closely  examined.  Then  she 
met  with  a  stone  embedded  against  the 
root  of  a  tree,  and  between  the  root  and 
the  stone  she  disappeared.  I  was  ex- 
pecting her  to  re-appear  at  the  opening 
on  the  opposite  side  just  as  quickly  as 
she  had  done  from  other  similar  crevices 
she  had  entered,  but  there  was  no  sign 
of  her.  While  wondering  what  she  was 
doing  beneath  the  stone,  some  object 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  165 

appeared  at  the  mouth  of  the  hole  by 
which  the  Wasp  had  entered — it  was  the 
black  and  red  body  of  the  Wasp  herself 
slowly  backing  out. 

Had  I  known  nothing  of  the  habits  of 
this  little  Wasp,  I  might  have  suspected 
that  she  was  being  driven  out  of  the 
hole  by  some  indignant  tenant  thereof, 
but  matters  were  not  so ;  indeed,  the 
Wasp  was  pulling  out  the  rightful  owner 
of  this  retreat — a  Wolf  Spider.  The  latter 
does  not  construct  a  snare,  but  hides 
under  cover  and  then  surprises  and  runs 
down  its  prey. 

The  Wolf  Spider  had  itself  on  this 
occasion  been  surprised  ;  for  the  plucky 
little  Wasp  had  boldly  entered  its  dwelling- 
place  and  there  attacked  it.  The  spider, 
finding  an  enemy  within  its- home,  would 
probably  act  as  if  it  were  dead,  and  then 
the  Wasp,  who  is  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  this  manoeuvre,  would  carefully 
examine  it,  and,  being  satisfied  that  it  was 
not  so  dead  as  it  appeared  to  be,  would 
seize  it  and  sting  it  in  its  nerve-cord, 
and  so  paralyse  it,  but  not  kill  it  outright. 

When    it    was    clear    of    the    hole    she 


166  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

appeared  to  become  very  nervous,  con- 
tinually looking  behind  her  as  she  walked 
backwards  dragging  the  spider,  which  was 
as  large  as  herself.  The  pace  at  which 
the  victim  was  dragged  over  the  rough 
ground  and  between  the  herbage  was 
astonishing.  Indeed,  it  was  obvious  that 
she  suspected  an  enemy  was  near,  for  her 
attention  seemed  divided  between  her 
treasure  and  her  surroundings,  and  I  am 
inclined  to  think  that  her  nervousness 
was  due  to  the  parasitic  Ruby-tailed 
Cuckoo  Fly  which  was  abundant  on 
flowers  in  the  neighbourhood.  These 
handsome  insect  cuckoos,  while  themselves 
feeding  on  flowers,  are  ever  on  the  look- 
out for  some  hard-working  solitary  wasp 
or  bee  conveying  its  capture  to  its  nest ; 
following  up  the  trail  they  then  await  a 
favourable  opportunity  to  deposit  an  egg 
either  in  the  nest  or  on  the  prey,  after- 
wards flying  gaily  off  to  feast  on  more 
nectar  and  pollen  from  the  flowers,  their 
home  cares  thus  being  satisfactorily  dis- 
posed of. 

The  diligent  little  Wasp,  however,  had 
a    much   greater   labour   to    perform,    and 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  167 

her  anxiety  showed  clearly  that  she  was 
fully  aware  of  what  was  required  of  her. 
After  she  had  travelled  with  her  spider 
about  nine  feet,  piping  excitedly  the  whole 
of  the  time,  she  suddenly  left  it  and  flew 
into  the  air,  as  if  taking  a  bird's-eye  view 
to  see  if  she  was  clear  of  all  danger. 
Apparently  she  was  satisfied,  for  she 
suddenly  swooped  down  upon  her  victim 
and  hastily  dragged  it  to  one  side  amongst 
some  grass  blades,  and  then,  seizing  the 
base  of  one,  slowly  climbed  up  it,  also 
dragging  up  her  spider.  At  last  she 
reached  a  node  from  which  a  blade  forked, 
and  in  the  angle  she  carefully  placed  her 
treasure,  touching  and  pulling  it  here  and 
there  to  test  if  it  was  safely  balanced. 
Then  with  a  parting  glance  she  flew  into 
the  air  and  disappeared  from  view. 

About  fifteen  minutes  later  she  returned, 
but  only  to  look  at  her  prize,  for  she 
flew  off  again  almost  instantly.  Twenty- 
five  minutes  later  she  again  returned  and 
rushed  hurriedly  to  her  spider,  but  did 
not  touch  it.  Instead  she  arranged  her 
toilet  for  some,  eight  or  ten  minutes. 
Evidently  she  had  been  digging  her  nest 


i68  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

in  the  sand-bank  somewhere  near,  and 
was  now  having  a  brush  up. 

Suddenly  she  set  up  her  shrill  piping 
and  literally  tumbled  to  the  ground  with 
her  spider,  and  then  she  seemed  possessed 
of  extraordinary  strength,  for  the  spider 
was  dragged  at  a  reckless  pace  for  more 
than  twenty  feet,  and  then  laid  down  while 
she  fluttered  her  wings  and  quivered  her 
feelers  —  perhaps  she  was  taking  her 
bearings.  Another  sharp  pull  sideways 
for  a  few  inches  then  followed,  when  she 
suddenly  let  go,  turned,  and  plunged  her 
head  into  a  neat  round  hole  at  the  foot 
of  the  bank, 

A  moment  later  the  Wasp  and  spider 
disappeared  into  the  hole,  the  last  view 
of  the  latter  being  its  vanishing  legs. 
Two  or  three  minutes  later  the  head  of 
the  Wasp  appeared,  and  perhaps  at  that 
moment  she  was  depositing  her  egg  on 
the  spider's  body.  Slowly  she  emerged, 
and  then  quickly  raked  up  the  sand  with 
legs  and  mandibles,  and  neatly  filled  up 
the  hole — so  neatly,  indeed,  that,  neglecting 
to  mark  the  spot  at  the  moment,  I  found 
it  quite  impossible  to  find  it  afterwards — 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  169 

and  then  hurried  from  the  place  (as  if 
afraid  of  being  seen  there)  to  brush  up 
her  wings  before  taking  flight. 

So  the  Spider-hunting  Wasp  labours 
for  her  offspring  which  she  will  never  see. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  provided  with  an  ample 
store  of  living  food  material  to  supply  its 
wants  when  it  hatches  from  the  egg ;  and, 
if  no  Cuckoo  Fly,  or  similar  parasite,  has 
surreptitiously  placed  its  egg  on  the  spider, 
or  within  the  nest,  there  will  some  day 
next  season  emerge  from  that  hole  a 
red  and  black  active  little  wasp  like  the 
one  whose  labours  have  here  been  recorded. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   DOR-BEETLE'S   MITE 

( Gamasus  coleoptratoru m ) 

WHEN,  in  his  hurried  flight,  the 
clumsy  Dor-beetle  (Fig.  119)  has  col- 
lided with  the  branch  of  a  tree,  or  even  a 
leaf  (for  he  is  an  unsteady  fellow  and  easily 
loses  his  balance),  he  is  not  infrequently 
found  on  his  back  on  a  hard  road  or  path, 
kicking  his*  very  hardest  with  his  six  legs, 
and  yet  quite  unable  to  get  his  feet  upon 
the  ground.  The  metallic  blues  and 
purples  of  his  underside  show  to  perfection 
as  he  struggles,  and  it  is  at  such  a  moment 
that  we  are  tempted  to  pick  up  the  insect. 
How  often,  though,  have  we  immediately 
dropped  it  again  on  account  of  the  crowd 
of  little,  pale  yellow  " parasites"  that 
are  almost  invariably  found  clinging  to 
its  body  and  legs  ? 

From    a   small-sized    beetle    I    removed 


170 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  171 

forty-three  of  these  Mites — a  photo-micro- 
graph of  one  of  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  120 
— but  that  is  a  comparatively  small  number, 
for  sometimes  they  literally  swarm  over  the 
beetle.  It  is  remarkable,  however,  that 
the  beetle  never  seems  the  least  bit  incon- 
venienced on  their  account ;  there  is,  I 
think,  a  plausible  explanation  of  that 
curious  fact. 

In  the  first  place  I  would  like  to  call 
attention  to  the  clean  state  in  which  the 
beetle's  polished  armour  is  always  found. 
Considering  the  noisome  substances  which 
it  manipulates,  and  into  which  it  com- 
pletely burrows,  it  is  rather  surprising  that 
it  should  not  carry  with  it  some  trace  of 
its  labours  ;  but,  strange  to  say,  it  does 
not  even  retain  the  odour  of  its  sur- 
roundings. The  latter  is  the  more 
astonishing  when  we  take  into  considera- 
tion the  fact  that  the  ill-savoured  burying 
beetles  make  their  presence  known  in  no 
unmistakable  manner ;  but  with  burying 
beetles  the  Dor-beetle's  Mite  apparently 
has  no  connection. 

Since  the  beetle's  body  and  legs  are 
clothed  in  a  horny  armour,  we  naturally 


i/2  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

wonder  on  what  the  mites  subsist ;  for 
it  seems  impossible  for  such  tiny  creatures 
to  penetrate  so  hard  a  surface  as  that  of 
their  host ;  also,  they  never  appear  to  be 
sucking  the  beetle's  blood.  More  often 
they  are  seen  to  be  quietly  travelling  over 
its  anatomy,  or,  when  still,  clinging  to 
one  of  its  hairs  by  means  of  one  or  both 
of  their  mouth  pincers — as  shown  in  the 
photo-micrograph,  Fig.  121. 

We  have,  therefore,  on  the  one  hand, 
a  beetle  which,  apparently,  is  not  the  least 
incommoded  by  what,  normally  considered, 
would  be  an  embarrassing  number  of 
"  parasites  "  preying  upon  it,  and  on  the 
other,  a  host  of  "  parasites  "  which  seem  to 
possess  no  desire  to  prey  upon  their  host. 

Probably  the  explanation  is  that  the 
mites  are  the  beetle's  allies,  and  not  its 
parasites.  It  may  be  that  the  beetle  owes 
its  spick-and-span  and  odourless  toilet  to 
the  regular  services  of  these  little  attend- 
ants. Many  similar  instances  are  known 
of  apparent  parasites  which,  on  investi- 
gation, have  proved  to  be  useful  allies, 
even  in  relation  to*  such  removed  animals 
as  fishes  and  birds. 


ng.    The  Dor-Beetle. 

120.  The  Dor-Beetle's  Mite,  which  serves  as  the  beetle's  toilet- 

attendant — magnified. 

121.  One  of  the  mouth-pincers  of  the  Beetle's  Mite  grasping  a 

hair  of  the  beetle,  by  means  of  which  it  can  hold  on. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  173 

In  cases  of  this  kind  the  services  are 
usually  mutual,  and  it  is  possible  that 
the  little  beetle-mite  requires  in  its 
economy  a  diet  similar  to  that  of  the 
beetle,  together  with  an  occasional  aerial 
conveyance  to  new  grounds  for  mating 
purposes.  In  consequence,  it  has  probably 
acquired  the  habit  of  engaging  the  Dor- 
beetle  as  its  motor  omnibus,  reciprocating 
the  service  rendered  by  diligently  cleaning 
down  the  machinery  of  its  locomotion,  the 
product  of  which  labour  may  serve  it  as 
food. 

A  feature  which  tends  to  point  to  that 
conclusion  is  the  fact  that  these  mites 
are  frequently  found  away  from  the  beetles, 
hiding  under  stones,  and  in  damp  places  ; 
especially  is  this  the  case  during  the  winter 
months. 

With  the  advent  of  the  cold  weather, 
most,  if  not  all,  of  the  old  beetles  perish, 
and  apparently  the  beetle-mites  then  leave 
the  dead  bodies  of  the  beetles  and  wait 
until  the  next  generation  of  their  allies 
appears  in  the  winged  state.  It  is  obvious 
that  they  are  able  to  live  for  months 
together  without  any  assistance  from  the 


174  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

beetles,  and  just  what  advantages  they 
derive  from  the  association  is  difficult  to 
understand  ;  unless,  as  I  have  previously 
suggested,  they  have  some  relationship 
to  the  functions  of  mating. 

I  am  inclined  to  think  that  the  mites 
are  reared  on  the  ground,  and  that  when 
a  family  has  reached  maturity,  the  indi- 
viduals betake  themselves  to  those  quarters 
where  the  beetles  will  be  sure  to  visit, 
and  so  they  find  a  host.  In  this  way  they 
probably  get  carried  to  new  grounds  far 
from  home,  where  they  will  meet  with 
mates  from  other  stock. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to 
observe  that  the  legs  and  feet  of  the  mites 
are  adapted  for  locomotion  on  moist  land, 
being  provided  with  claws  and  suckers, 
and  that  they  have  no  eyes.  It  would  be 
a  distinct  advantage,  therefore,  when  an 
individual  had  travelled  a  long  distance 
to  suitable  ground  to  find  a  mate,  and  yet 
had  been  unsuccessful,  to  get  quickly 
conveyed  to  another  similar  situation  ; 
indeed,  it  may  be  that  the  beetle  itself 
is  the  profitable  hunting  ground  for  finding 
their  mates.  In  any  case  it  is  certain  that 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  175 

the  mite  obtains  some  advantages  from  its 
association  with  the  beetle,  and  as  these, 
on  the  whole,  do  not  appear  to  be  of  a 
parasitic  character,  perhaps  the  sug- 
gestions offered  here  will  tend  to  further 
investigation  regarding  the  habits  of  these 
curious  little  organisms. 

The  mites  themselves  are  queer  little 
animals,  and  are  not  insects  strictly 
speaking,  but  may  be  regarded  as  degene- 
rate spiders.  In  their  early  stages  they 
have  only  six  legs,  but  when  their  develop- 
ment is  complete,  another  pair  appears. 
Their  projecting  mouth  pincers  can  be 
either  partially  or  wholly  withdrawn  into 
their  bodies. 


CHAPTER   XV 

THE    LIFE-STORY   OF  THE  PURPLE 
EMPEROR   BUTTERFLY 

(Apatura  iris) 

WHICH  is  the  most  beautiful  of 
British  butterflies  ?  is  a  question 
that  is  frequently  asked  of  the  collector. 
The  reply,  of  course,  must  largely  depend 
upon  the  taste  of  the  individual  ento- 
mologist ;  for,  although  we  have  in  the 
British  Isles  only  some  sixty  or  seventy 
species  of  these  insects,  yet  amongst  them 
there  is  exhibited  a  considerable  variety 
both  in  form  and  in  the  brilliancy  and 
arrangement  of  their  colours.  However, 
if  the  "palm"  has  to  be  awarded  any 
one  particular  insect,  perhaps  the  male 
Purple  Emperor  should  be  that  one ;  for 
his  rich  shining  purple  certainly  more 
nearly  approaches  the  resplendent  hues  of 
some  of  the  large  and  gorgeous  butterflies 


INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES  177 

of  tropical  America  than  does  the  colouring 
of  any  other  British  insect  of  his  class. 
Only  in  certain  lights,  though,  does  the 
Emperor  exhibit  his  royal  colour  :  when 
not  viewed  from  the  correct  angle  his 
iridescent  lustre  remains  invisible,  that 
area  of  the  wing  appearing  of  a  sombre 
brownish-black. 

The  female  insect  is  usually  larger  than 
her  mate,  and  resembles  him  in  general 
colour  arrangement,  the  bands  and  spots 
of  white,  with  touches  of  brighter  orange 
brown,  which  enliven  the  velvety  brown 
ground  colour  of  the  wings,  being  very 
similar  to  those  of  the  male,  but  with 
one  striking  difference.  No  matter  from 
what  point  of  view  they  are  seen,  their 
brown  surface  never  reveals  the  glorious 
purple  sheen  which  characterizes  the  male 
insect,  and  from  which  the  butterfly  derives 
its  popular  name. 

While  in  Central  Europe  this  butterfly 
is  often  abundant,  yet,  in  England,  it  is 
now  restricted  to  a  few  counties,  chiefly 
in  the  South,  although  Lincolnshire  and 
Northamptonshire  can  claim  a  fair  share 
of  its  patronage,  and,  likewise,  Monmouth- 

12 


i ;8  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

shire,  in  Wales.  It  occasionally  appears 
in  fair  abundance  in  such  places  as  the 
New  Forest,  and  in  woods  in  Sussex  and 
Kent,  but  it  is  rarely  found  except  in 
old,  undisturbed  woods  of  large  extent, 
and  as  these  become  restricted  in  area  so 
the  insect  becomes  more  and  more  scarce. 
Under  such  circumstances  it  is,  perhaps, 
not  surprising  that  this  handsome  butterfly, 
though  well  known  by  repute,  has  actually 
been  seen  in  the  living  state  by  compara- 
tively few  people.  Even  in  those  districts 
where  the  insect  still  inhabits,  it  is  but 
seldom  observed,  unless  one  knows  where 
to  look  for  it. 

The  male  Emperor  is  not  content  with 
the  ordinary  see-saw  flight  of  the  normal 
butterfly  species,  but  may  be  seen  swiftly 
sailing  above  the  tops  of  tall  oak-trees, 
where  he  gets  a  clear  space  for  the  exercise 
of  his  flashing  and  resplendent  wings, 
and  an  open  field  for  battle  should  any 
neighbouring  monarch  happen  to  approach 
his  preserves — a  sure  prelude  to  a  deter- 
mined fight.  Generally,  too,  the  Emperor 
selects  the  topmost  twig  where  nothing 
obscures  his  outlook ;  and,  after  one  of 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  179 

his  long,  rapid  flights,  back  he  comes  again 
to  that  identical  twig — his  royal  throne, 
it  may  be.  The  female  insect  is  much  less 
rarely  seen  on  the  wing. 

This  is  not  the  only  curious  habit  of 
this  beautiful  insect :  the  kind  of  food  it 
affects  is  another.  We  are  told  that  the 
older  naturalists  captured  this  butterfly  by 
means  of  nets  fixed  to  handles  of  some 
thirty  feet  in  length  ;  but  it  requires,  I 
fear,  a  better  imagination  than  I  possess 
to  understand  how  these  unwieldy  weapons 
could  be  effectual  to  curb  the  rapid  flight 
and  lofty  ambitions  of  the  Emperor  butter- 
fly. When,  however,  the  feeding  habits 
of  this  insect  became  known,  quite 
different  methods  were  adopted  to  effect 
its  capture.  Now,  in  place  of  the  pre- 
posterously long  and  unwieldy  net,  a  dead 
rat,  rabbit,  stoat,  weasel,  cat,  or  almost 
any  kind  of  putrefying  flesh  is  judiciously 
placed  here  and  there  near  the  butterfly's 
haunts,  and  left  for  a  day  or  two  ; 
for,  incongruous  as  it  may  seem,  this  is 
the  kind  of  delicacy  that  most  tempts 
the  imperial  palate  of  this  lovely  insect. 
As  soon  as  the  bait  has  been  discovered, 


1 8o  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  capture  of  the  quarry  is  easy,  for  the 
butterfly  becomes  so  absorbed  in  its  feast 
that  it  forgets  to  keep  guard  ;  indeed,  so 
allured  is  it  by  this  repast,  that  you  can 
sometimes  approach  and  touch  the  insect, 
without  disturbing  it.  The  female  insect, 
however,  is  not  attracted  by  this  bait  :  her 
time  is  largely  occupied  amongst  the 
sallows,  on  the  leaves  of  which  she  deposits 
her  eggs. 

July  is  the  month  in  which  the  butterfly 
appears,  being  early  or  late  according 
to  favourable  or  unfavourable  weather. 
Where  it  comes  from  we  need  not,  for 
a  moment,  consider.  Then,  after  mating, 
eggs  are  deposited,  the  mother  insect 
selecting  the  leaves  of  the  willow,  and 
sometimes  the  poplar  or  the  aspen,  as 
suitable  sites  on  which  her  offspring  may 
be  given  a  good  start  in  life.  The  larvae 
will  also  feed  on  the  foliage  of  the  apple- 
tree. 

In  from  ten  to  twelve  days  the  egg 
hatches  out  its  caterpillar,  which  is,  at  first, 
of  a  dark  brown  colour.  After  the  first 
moulting  of  its  skin  it  becomes  green,  like 
the  leaf  on  which  it  feeds,  and  is  then 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  181 

provided  with  a  pair  of  curious  horns  at 
its  head.  The  method  of  feeding  practised 
by  the  young  larva  is  quaint.  It  com- 
mences its  meal  at  the  tip  of  the  leaf, 
slowly  consuming  the  leaf  down  each 
side  of  the  central  vein  or  midrib. 
When  the  meal  is  finished  it  ascends 
the  bare  midrib  until  it  reaches  the 
apex,  and  here  it  comes  to  rest.  When 
its  appetite  returns,  it  again  descends  to 
the  feeding  area  (or  dining-room)  below. 
In  this  curious  habit  this  butterfly  larva 
is  not  alone,  for  the  young  caterpillar 
of  the  White  Admiral  butterfly,  which 
feeds  on  honeysuckle  leaves,  acts  in 
exactly  the  same  manner. 

The  larva  continues  thus  to  feed,  rest, 
and  grow  until  the  "  fall  of  leaf"  approaches, 
at  which  time  it  has  not  attained  half  the 
size  it  will  eventually  reach.  About  the 
middle  of  October  the  young  caterpillar, 
with  that  marvellous  instinct  so  often 
displayed  amongst  Nature's  unreasoning 
creatures,  slowly  and  methodically  descends 
to  the  base  of  the  leaf  on  which  it  is  feed- 
ing, and  weaves  a  silken  web  around  that 
portion  of  the  leaf  stalk  where  the  detach- 


182  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

ment  is  about  to  take  place.  Then,  by 
means  of  other  silken  threads,  it  pulls 
the  edges  of  the  leaf  about  it,  and  in  this 
leafy  hammock  it  rests  contented.  When 
the  time  comes  for  the  leaf  to  separate 
from  the  branch,  although  the  separation 
actually  takes  place,  yet  the  leaf  does  not 
immediately  fall,  for  the  silken  web  holds 
it,  together  with  the  caterpillar,  firmly 
to  the  branch,  and,  if  all  goes  well,  there 
it  remains  throughout  the  winter  months. 
Even  if  unfavourable  weather  should  even- 
tually detach  the  leafy  hammock,  and  it 
drops  to  the  ground,  it  will  probably 
continue  to  lie  undisturbed  amongst  other 
fallen  leaves,  and  the  only  difference  to 
the  young  caterpillar  is  that,  in  the  follow- 
ing spring,  it  is  compelled  to  crawl  about 
until  it  finds  the  trunk  of  a  tree  which  will 
lead  it  to  its  proper  leaf  food. 

When  the  leaves  appear  in  the  follow- 
ing spring,  the  caterpillar  no  longer 
mincingly  eats  tiny  portions  from  the 
tip  of  the  leaf  downwards,  but  ravenously 
devours  any  portion  of  the  leaf  substance, 
presenting  during  the  process  a  most 
quaint  appearance — as  the  illustration, 


126 


127 


122.  Full-grown  Caterpillars  of  the  Purple  Emperor  Butterfly. 

123.  The  curious  Caterpillar  as  it  appears  when  feeding. 

124.  The     Chrysalis     viewed     from     the     front,     when     it     is 

inconspicuous. 

125.  A  profile  view  of  the  Chrysalis. 

126.  The    newly  -  emerged     Butterfly    clinging     to     its     broken 

chrysalis  skin. 

127.  When  its  wings  had  dried  and  become  rigid. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  183 

Fig.  123,  shows.  In  general  aspect  the 
larva  looks  like  a  large  slug  (Fig.  122), 
although  its  head  horns  are  strong  and 
hard,  and  not  retractile  like  those  of  slugs  ; 
and  what  with  the  bright  green  colour  of 
its  body  and  its  blue  and  white  shaded 
horns,  it  becomes,  for  a  slug,  a  most 
gorgeous  specimen.  Probably  it  gains 
some  measure  of  protection  against  its 
enemies  by  this  resemblance  to  a  slug ; 
for  any  caterpillar-feeding  animal  would 
hardly  recognize  it  as  a  caterpillar,  while 
slug-feeding  animals,  on  account  of  its 
bright  colours,  would,  perhaps,  be  too 
suspicious  to  attack  it. 

About  the  middle  of  June  the  cater- 
pillar is  full-fed,  and  prepares  for  its 
chrysalis  stage.  It  first  weaves  a  flat  silken 
web  to  the  surface  of  a  leaf,  to  which  it 
then  attaches  itself  by  its  tail  claspers ; 
and,  while  thus  suspended,  it  moults  its 
last  caterpillar  skin,  which  shrinks  back 
to  its  tail-end,  where  it  is  attached.  The 
chrysalis  is  then  exposed  to  view  ;  and  in 
the  illustration  (Fig.  124),  it,  together  with 
the  shrunken  caterpillar  skin,  and  the 
hard  head  horns,  are  shown. 


1 84  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

The  colouring  of  the  chrysalis  is  very 
similar  to  that  of  the  caterpillar,  and 
both  colour  and  markings  harmonize  so 
perfectly  with  the  leaf  to  which  the  pupa 
is  attached  that,  although  the  chrysalis 
is  of  a  fair  size,  yet  it  is  not  at  all  con- 
spicuous. When  viewed  from  the  front, 
its  markings  so  accurately  simulate  those 
of  the  veins  of  the  leaf,  that  the  chrysalis 
presents  a  flat  effect,  and  apparently 
becomes  part  of  the  leaf  structure,  as  the 
unshaded  side  of  Fig.  124  clearly  illustrates. 
In  Fig.  125  a  chrysalis  is  shown  in  side 
view,  and  there  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
object  really  possesses  considerable  relief, 
although,  as  we  have  seen,  its  shadings 
tend  to  give  it  a  flat  appearance.  Probably 
the  chrysalis  is  by  this  means  hidden 
from  the  eyes  of  its  enemies. 

In  from  sixteen  to  twenty  days,  accord- 
ing to  the  weather,  the  mature  butterfly 
appears.  In  the  illustration  (Fig.  126)  the 
newly-emerged  butterfly  is  seen  clinging 
to  its  broken  chrysalis  shell ;  while  at  the 
base  of  the  latter  is  its  last  shrunken 
caterpillar  skin  and  head  horns.  There 
it  hangs  with  its  limp  and  wet  wings 


130 


128.  The  Purple  Emperor  Butterfly  with  wings  trim  and  ready 

for  flight. 

129.  Just  before  expanding  its  wings. 

130.  The  upper  surface  of  the  Wings  exposed  to  view. 

131.  A  view  of  the  under-side. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  185 

fully  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  until 
they  become  dry  and  rigid,  when  the 
insect  can  bring  them  under  muscular 
control.  In  Fig.  127  this  drying  process 
is  seen  taking  place  ;  and  in  Fig.  128  the 
butterfly  is  shown  trim  and  ready  to 
commence  its  winged  life  above. 

What  a  marvellous  change  it  was  from 
the  sluggish  caterpillar,  whose  only  delight 
in  life  was  to  devour  the  green  leaves 
of  the  sallow,  to  the  light  and  delicate 
insect  with  fragile  wings  of  lovely  hues, 
and  yet  of  sufficient  strength  to  convey 
it  high  above  the  tops  of  the  tall  trees 
on  whose  leaves  it  was  erstwhile  con- 
demned to  crawl !  Now,  too,  its  vege- 
tarian appetite  has  disappeared,  for,  as  we 
have  already  seen,  its  food  now  consists 

of But    look !    the   beautiful    insect 

has  opened  wide  its  wings  and  revealed  to 
us  their  wealth  of  colour ;  rich  velvety 
browns  broadly  slashed  with  white,  which 
with  every  changing  movement  become 
flushed  with  a  gorgeous  sheen  of  royal 
purple.  It  is  impossible  to  associate  this 
handsome  child  of  the  sun  with  the  dis- 
gusting carrion  on  which  it  feeds — so 


1 86  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

incongruous  is  the  connection.  Away  it 
flies,  but  only  for  a  short  distance,  for 
its  powers  of  flight  have  yet  to  be  deve- 
loped. So  we  are  enabled  to  make  three 
final  pictures  of  it  (Figs.  129,  130  and  131) 
before  it  leaves  us  to  soar  above,  higher 
and  higher,  full  of  the  glory  of  life,  to 
court  its  mate,  and  to  do  battle  with 
its  rival. 


CHAPTER   XVI 

SOME   DETAILS   OF   SPIDER   LIFE 

ONLY  a  very  cursory  glance  into  the 
details  of  spider  life  is  needed 
to  discover  how  very  perfectly  equipped 
are  these  animals  for  their  special  function 
of  fly-snaring.  The  same  cursory  glance 
may  also  lead  to  a  further  discovery,  viz., 
that  the  female  spider,  for  sheer  cruelty, 
stands  almost  unequalled  amongst  living 
things.  In  fact,  we  might  go  further  and 
say  that  she  is  one  of  the  fiercest  and  most 
savage  beasts  in  creation. 

I  know  that  there  are  many  good  folk 
who  will  be  quite  ready  to  join  me 
in  declaiming  against  Mrs.  Spider,  or 
even  Mr.  Spider,  for  that  matter.  Indeed, 
you  have  only  to  mention  the  name  of 
"  Spider"  to  some  people  to  make  them 
shudder  and  exclaim,  "  Nasty,  horrid 

insects ! "     It    is    not   a   little   remarkable, 

187 


1 88  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

however,  that,  although  they  possess  so 
great  an  aversion  for  spiders,  yet  they 
rarely  can  give  the  slightest  reason  for 
their  dislike.  Some  good  housewife,  it 
is  true,  may  complain  that  they  make 
cobwebs ;  but,  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
these  snares  entrap  many  troublesome 
household  insects,  that  is  a  trait  which 
might  almost  be  looked  upon  as  a  prime 
virtue  rather  than  a  sin.  In  a  general 
way,  indeed,  it  may  be  said  that  man 
possesses  an  instinctive  antipathy  for 
spiders,  an  antipathy  which  has  arisen 
probably  from  the  fact  that  some  spider 
species  are  dangerous  to  his  race,  although 
the  species  found  in  this  country  are 
harmless  enough. 

Still  they  are  "  nasty,  horrid  insects!" 
I  fancy  some  of  my  more  sensitive  readers 
will  still  maintain.  But  spiders  are  not 
insects,  I  must  protest — a  point  which  I 
need  not  have  referred  to  here,  but  for 
that  "  learned"  and  tedious  person  the 
hypercritic,  who  will  doubtless  discover 
that  this  chapter,  and  also  Chapter  XIV, 
have,  strictly  speaking,  no  right  in  a 
book  on  Insects.  Since,  however,  the 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  189 

general  reader  probably  expects  to  learn 
something  regarding  spiders  from  a  book 
on  Insects,  I  have  dared  to  include  the 
subject  in  this  closing  chapter.  The  chief 
distinctions  between  these  little  animals 
are  that  insects  have  their  bodies  divided 
into  three  parts,  and  possess  three  pairs 
of  legs.  Spiders,  however,  have  their 
bodies  divided  into  two  parts,  popularly 
speaking,  head  and  abdomen,  and  they 
have  eight  legs,  and  therefore  belong  to 
quite  a  different  class  of  animals  ;  a  class 
that  includes  certain  spider-like  creatures, 
such  as  scorpions,  mites,  ticks,  and  other 
allied  forms,  and  one  that  revels  in  the 
scientific  name  of  the  Arachnida.  The 
word  "  insect,"  therefore,  is  completely 
disposed  of.  Regarding  the  "  nasty"  and 
"  horrid "  epithets,  I  fear  I  cannot  say 
so  much  against  them,  for  Mrs.  Spider 
certainly  does  some  very  nasty  and  horrid 
things. 

It  is  no  compliment  to  either  Miss  or 
Mrs.  Spider  when  I  inform  you  that, 
when  they  are  wooed  by  the  amorous  Mr. 
Spider,  the  success  of  his  advances  largely 
depends  on  the  state  of  their  appetites. 


190  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

In  this  way.  Let  us  observe  Miss  Spider 
when  she  has  just  returned  from  one  of 
her  frenzied  and  bloodthirsty  attacks  upon 
a  house-fly  that  has  carelessly  buzzed  into 
her  net.  When  Mr.  Spider  approaches, 
she  is  peacefully  resting  in  the  midst  of 
her  web,  indifferent  as  to  whether  she  is 
seen  or  not  (for  when  she  is  hungry 
she  is  rarely  found  resting  in  her  snare, 
but  hidden  away  beneath  a  leaf  near  by, 
in  prompt  telegraphic  communication, 
nevertheless,  with  her  seat  of  warfare). 
At  such  a  moment  the  advances  of  the 
male  spider  may  be  favourably  received. 
On  the  other  hand,  suppose  the  expected 
house-fly  has  not  appeared,  or  has  steered 
clear  of  the  trap  laid  for  it,  and  Miss 
Spider's  hunger  has  not  been  appeased. 
Mr.  Spider's  attentions  would  be  received 
with  equal  welcome,  perhaps  even  more 
encouraged  by  the  cruel  and  relentless 
lady,  but  her  intentions  towards  him 
would  now  be  very  different.  Repre- 
hensible as  it  may  seem,  Miss  Spider 
would  probably  allow  her  lover  to  advance 
nervously  along  her  snare,  and  then,  like 
the  fierce  and  ravenous  monster  that  she 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  191 

is,  would  suddenly  rush  upon  him  and 
devour  him  alive.  This  cannibalistic  trait 
in  her  character  seems  all  the  more 
reprehensible  when  we  consider  the  fact 
that  in  size  and  strength  she  is  very 
superior  to  Mr.  Spider.  Even  her 
successful  suitor  undertakes  very  grave 
risks  should  he  displease  her ;  indeed, 
he  is  sometimes  seen  to  fling  himself 
suddenly  from  the  snare,  and  remain 
suspended  on  his  silken  ladder ;  and  when 
he  does  this  you  may  know  that  he  has 
had  a  little  tiff  with  Mrs.  Spider,  and,  if 
he  had  not  escaped,  there  would  have  been 
a  tragedy  in  the  family,  in  which  Mr. 
Spider  wrould  very  certainly  have  been 
the  victim. 

Mrs.  Spider's  love  of  slaughter  and  her 
savage  disposition  are  supplemented  in 
every  way  by  her  natural  equipment. 
In  Fig.  132  we  see  her  beautifully  con- 
structed snare  artfully  suspended  amongst 
the  branches  where  flies  would  be  least 
likely  to  see  it.  Away  somewhere  amongst 
the  leaves  she  is  lurking,  waiting  for  an 
unwary  victim.  This  marvellously-con- 
structed device  for  ensnaring  her  prey 


192  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

is  the  more  astonishing  when  we  consider 
its  details. 

If  you  notice  Mrs.  Spider  when  she  is 
moving  about  her  web,  you  will  observe 
that  she  generally  travels  along  the 
straight  and  radiating  spokes,  avoiding 
as  far  as  possible  the  spiral  or  tangential 
threads ;  these  latter  are  arranged  with 
diabolical  ingenuity  for  the  capture  of 
her  victims.  In  Fig.  133  I  have  shown 
a  portion  of  one  of  these  threads  as  viewed 
through  a  microscope.  It  only  needs 
a  glance  at  the  photograph  to  realize 
that  it  is  not  the  simple  thread  that  at 
first  it  seems  to  be.  Studded  at  almost 
regular  intervals  along  its  length  are  large, 
and  small,  viscid,  bead-like  globules.  Yes, 
Mrs.  Spider's  snare  is  not  only  a  net  in 
which  to  catch  unwary  flies,  but  a  veritable 
bird-lime  trap,  which  hopelessly  entangles 
them  as  they  struggle  to  effect  their  escape. 

The  whole  snare,  indeed,  is  a  very 
marvellously  evolved  device.  First,  how 
nearly  invisible  it  is  for  so  large  a 
structure !  Then  consider  its  wonderful 
geometrical  arrangement,  with  every 
facility  for  the  swift  movement  of  the 


« 

I 

0 
0 

0 


3-2.    The  Spider's  beautifully-constructed  Snare. 
33.    A  portion  of  the   Spiral  Thread — magnified  to  reveal   its 
viscid  globules. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  193 

spider  in  any  direction,  and  for  cutting 
free  any  part  should  a  wasp  or  large  fly 
become  too  troublesome.  There  are  its 
simple  and  its  compound  threads,  varying 
according  to  the  function  they  have  to 
fulfil,  some  of  which,  as  we  have  seen, 
being  studded  with  viscid  beads.  The 
rays  and  beams,  along  which  the  spider 
moves,  are,  however,  not  so  studded, 
neither  are  the  parts  near  the  centre  where 
it  rests.  Truly  a  remarkable  structure, 
when  we  consider  that  it  was  evolved 
without  the  aid  of  any  reasoning  powers 
in  the  possession  of  the  little  animal  that 
produced  it. 

To  understand  how  these  geometrical 
snares  have  been  evolved  to  their  present 
perfection,  we  have  to  consider  the  snares 
of  some  of  the  lowest  types  of  these 
animals — for  these  orb-weavers  stand 
highest  amongst  their  race.  Some  simple 
types  do  not  make  a  snare  at  all,  but 
stalk  and  run  down  their  prey,  hiding 
until  the  opportunity  occurs.  Others,  a 
little  more  advanced,  construct  a  small 
tube  in  the  ground  in  which  to  hide, 
lining  its  interior  with  silk,  and,  to  keep 

13 


194  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

out  enemies,  closing  its  entrance  also 
with  a  silken  web.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  first  use  of  silk-spinning 
was  for  the  building  of  the  home,  to 
cover  the  cocoon  and  eggs,  and  to  protect 
the  mother  and  young.  Probably,  though, 
the  closing  of  the  entrance  to  the  tube 
with  silk  has  led  to  the  beautiful  and 
geometrical  snares  so  familiar  in  gardens 
and  fields  all  over  the  world  to-day. 
The  enemies  of  the  spider  and  inquisitive 
insects  would  doubtless  get  entangled 
in  this  entrance  web,  and  then  the 
spider  would  have  its  chance,  and 
thus  would  discover  a  new  method  of 
capturing  its  prey.  In  due  course, 
guided  by  the  success  achieved  by  this 
new  method,  it  would  construct  more  and 
more  complex  webs  outside  its  retreat, 
extending  them  to  the  leaves  and  stems 
of  plants  and  similar  objects  ;  and  thus 
by  a  gradual  perfection  of  the  primitive 
form  in  the  course  of  the  ages  may  have 
evolved  the  marvellous  geometrical  struc- 
tures, with  all  their  complicated  details, 
which  are  so  common  to-day  in  gardens, 
.fields,  and  woods. 


A    BIRD-EATING    SPIDER— NATURAL    SIZE, 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMJBJCA  '       * 


On  the  other  hand  though,  some  of 
these  primitive  tube-living  spiders  have 
evolved  on  quite  different  lines — viz.,  by 
perfecting  their  tube  arrangement  instead 
of  their  nets.  Of  course,  such  examples 
remain  free  hunters  in  the  open. 

In    Southern    Europe   and  other  places 
trap-door  spiders   are    familiar,  and    these 
animals  represent  the  corresponding  high- 
est types   of  the   tube-living   species.     In 
illustration   Fig.   134  is  shown   at  natural 
size  the  entrance  to  one  of  these  dwellings. 
The  door,   it   will    be    seen,   is   thick   and 
beautifully  bevelled  at  its  edges,  and  close- 
fitting   like   a   cork.     When    it   closes,  its 
outside   surface   is   exactly   like    the    sur- 
rounding  soil    (see    photograph),    and    so 
the  entrance  to  the  spider's  retreat  becomes 
completely   hidden    from    view.     Some   of 
these    trap-door    spiders     attain    a    large 
size,    and   will    occasionally   attack   young 
birds    which     they    find    in    nests    when 
moving   about   amongst   the    branches    of 
the    trees.     One    of    these    is    shown    at 
natural  size  in  Plate  XI. 

The   door   is   at   first   constructed    of  a 
layer  of  silk,  which   is  spread  across   the 


196  y .         '''INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 


mouth  of  the  tube.  Bits  of  soil,  moss, 
and  other  layers  of  silk  are  then  intro- 
duced, until  the  required  thickness  is 
obtained,  with,  at  the  same  time,  a  perfect 
resemblance  to  its  surroundings.  The 
hinge  is  also  made  of  silk,  and  the  tube 
is  thoroughly  lined  with  the  same  material. 
Within  the  tube  during  daylight  the 
spider  remains  concealed,  but  at  night- 
fall it  pushes  open  its  door  from  within 
and  sallies  forth  to  hunt  its  prey,  leaving 
open  the  door  to  its  dwelling,  as  shown 
in  the  photograph  Fig.  134,  all  in  readiness 
for  a  hasty  retreat.  In  the  latter  case  the 
spider  bolts  into  her  tunnel  and  pulls 
shut  the  door,  which  readily  closes  by 
its  own  weight,  and  then  she  clings  to 
the  silken  threads  of  the  under  side,  and 
also  holds  to  the  sides  of  her  dwelling- 
tube  ;  in  this  way  she  usually  succeeds  in 
defending  her  stronghold  from  dangerous 
intruders.  Such  then  are  the  two  lines 
of  evolution  pursued  by  the  spider  groups 
from  the  primitive  types  that  dwelt  in 
silk-lined  cavities  in  the  soil. 

Now  we  may  glance  at  Fig.  135,  where 
are   shown   the   spinnerets,  or   organs   by 


i34-    The  Home  of  the  Trap-door  Spider. 

135.  A  magnified  view  of  the  Spinnerets,  which  the  Spider  can 

use  like  fingers  when  manipulating  the  web. 

136.  Some    of    Silk-emitting    tubes    of    one    of    the    Spinnerets — 

considerably  magnified. 

137.  Foot  of  the  Spider,  showing  the  comb-like  claws,  cutting- 

hook,  and  sensitive  bristles. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  197 

means  of  which  Mrs.  Spider  produces 
the  silk  she  finds  so  useful.  Within  her 
body  are  powerful  glands  which  secrete 
this  web-producing  material,  and  then 
it  is  squeezed  through  minute  tubes  of 
various  shapes,  large  numbers  of  which 
terminate  each  of  the  spinnerets  at  the 
end  of  the  abdomen.  In  Fig.  136  some 
of  these  numerous  tubes  are  shown  con- 
siderably magnified  to  reveal  their  struc- 
ture. The  spinnerets  can  be  used  like 
fingers  by  the  spider,  touching  and 
joining  up  a  broken  thread  of  the  web 
here  and  there,  varying  its  construction 
with  more  or  less  simple  or  compound 
threads  as  may  be  desired. 

It  is  plain  that  the  anatomy  of  the 
spider  is  as  complex  and  highly  organized 
as  her  snare.  This  becomes  even  more 
apparent  when  we  consider  those  organs 
by  means  of  which  she  carries  out  her 
cruel  practices.  Look  at  illustration  Fig. 
137,  and  see  the  array  of  combed  claws 
and  sensitive  bristles  contained  in  the 
foot  of  Mrs.  Spider.  The  hapless  fly 
that  gets  entangled  in  the  intricate  and 
viscid  snare  has,  in  addition,  to  meet 


198  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

the  attack  of  eight  weapons  of  this  de- 
scription. How  perfectly  adapted,  too, 
are  these  organs  for  adjusting,  cutting, 
and  holding  the  snare  structure  ! 

But  the  troubles  of  the  spider's  victim 
by  no  means  end  here.     It  is  struggling 
to  escape  from  the  unexpected  net   which 
in  some  mysterious  manner  has  suddenly 
enveloped   it,    when  a  creature  of  terrible 
aspect  hastily  rushes  out  upon  it.     Eight 
bead-like    eyes     glare     wildly    upon     the 
terrified  fly  (Fig.   138),  a  large  hairy  and 
bristly    finger-like   palpi   on   each   side   of 
this   appalling   face   waves   and  flourishes 
with  angry  menace  in  the  air,  apparently 
quivering  with  malignant  glee.     Then  one 
of    those    combed     and     clawed     feet    is 
stretched    towards    the    hapless     prisoner 
(let  us  hope  that  it  has  by  this  time  been 
frightened     into     insensibility),    and     the 
threads    that    hold    the    fly   are    suddenly 
tightened   up   as   the  monster  pulls  them 
together.      Then    the    spinnerets    eject    a 
shower    of    silken    strands    over    the    fly, 
and  it  is  spun    round    and  round   on    the 
threads   that   hold    it,    until    at   last   it    is 
securely   enveloped — still   alive — in   silken 


138 


138.  The  Face  of  a  Spider,  showing  its  eight  eyes,  poison  fangs, 

and  a  pair  of  hairy  feelers. 

139.  The  mouth-parts  of  a  Spider,  arranged  to  show  the  crushing 

teeth  and  poison  fangs,  and  the  jointed  and  hairy  feelers. 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  199 

bonds.  And  so  the  fly  is  left  in  Mrs. 
Spider's  larder,  in  durance  vile,  until  she 
needs  a  meal. 

It  may  happen,  though,  that  Mrs.  Spider 
is  immediately  hungry,  in  which  case  she 
pursues  the  same  tactics,  but  they  terminate 
more  abruptly.  Between  those  hairy  and 
bristly  palpi  that  were  brandished  so 
savagely  about  the  hapless  fly  are  two 
other  terrible  organs — two  poison  fangs, 
as  deadly,  so  far  as  the  fly  is  concerned, 
as  those  of  the  cobra.  If  Mrs.  Spider 
is  hungry,  she  attacks  the  silk-enveloped 
fly  with  these  claw-like  poison  fangs,  which 
are  connected  with  a  poison  gland  in  her 
head.  These  fangs  are  also  movable,  and 
form  most  efficient  grasping  organs,  each 
fang  closing  inwards  in  clasp-knife  fashion. 
With  these  the  spider  holds  its  victim 
firmly  in  contact  with  its  toothed  crush- 
ing jaws  while  it  extracts  its  juices.  In 
Fig.  139  is  shown  a  magnified  view  of 
these  mouth  organs  of  the  spider. 

Surely,  then,  considering  the  fearful 
equipment  of  Mrs.  Spider  and  the  savage 
and  relentless  manner  in  which  she  attacks 
her  prey,  her  lovers,  and  even  the  husband 


200  INSECT  BIOGRAPHIES 

of  her  choice,  we  may  say  that  she  is  one 
of  the  fiercest  savages  in  the  whole  realm 
of  nature.  She  certainly  seems  to  show 
a  little  mercy  when  she  poisons  her  victim 
before  devouring  it,  but  I  am  very  regret- 
fully inclined  to  think  that  she  uses  her 
poison  as  little  as  possible.  It  is  obvious 
that  she  requires  living  prey,  otherwise 
she  would  not  store  her  victims  alive.  I 
fear  that  the  use  of  her  poison  is  largely 
reserved  for  unruly  and  troublesome  wasps, 
bees,  and  similar  " vermin"  that  occasion- 
ally become  entangled  in  her  snare.  A 
little  poison  then  probably  assists  in  bring- 
ing her  victim  into  gentle  subjection. 

I  would  like  in  conclusion  to  have  said 
one  good  word  at  least  to  retrieve  the 
character  of  Mrs.  Spider,  but  facts  are 
stubborn  things  to  deal  with.  Even  on 
the  score  of  her  economy,  where  I  might 
plead  for  her,  her  unamiable  traits  make 
it  impossible.  Truly  she  consumes  every 
particle  of  broken  web  and  redigests  it, 
and  even  her  cast  skin  she  eats  up  as  if 
afraid  lest  it  should  be  lost ;  but  even  her 
economy  ends  in  disgrace,  for  does  she 
not  also  eat  up  her  superfluous  lovers 


fl 


tznl 


MT 


m 


THE    SPIDER'S    DOOM— FROZEN    AT    HER    POST, 


WITH  PEN  AND   CAMERA  201 

in  the  same  way — lest,  perhaps,  they  might 
be  wasted  ? 

Mrs.  Spider  persists  in  her  butchery  until 
winter  has  commenced,  and  then  becomes 
more  or  less  dormant ;  but  winter  usually 
spells  her  doom,  especially  when  she 
becomes  old  and  feeble.  A  sudden  and 
unexpected  frost  sometimes  overtakes 
the  exhausted  spider  that  has  toiled 
to  spread  a  net  for  the  last  fly  of  the 
season,  and  then  we  may  often  find 
that  Nemesis  has  at  last  overtaken  the 
too  greedy  and  ferocious  lady  spider 
(Plate  XII). 


INDEX 


Abraxas  grossulariata,  150 
Anobium  domesticum,  47,  49 
Apatura  iris,  176 
Aphides — 

and  Hover-fly,  77 

and  Lace  wing  Fly  larva,  17,  18 

and  vegetation,  23 

power  of  multiplication  of,  22, 23 
Araclmida,  189 

Beetle- 
Death  Watch,  47,  48 
Devil's  Coach-horse,  103 
Dor-,  170,  173 
Blight,    Green,    and    Hover-flies, 

76-8,  83-5 

Brimstone  Butterfly — 
hiding  place  of,  96 
in  winter,  95 
Butterflies- 
British  ;  most  general  method 

of  wintering,  99 

early,     and    newspaper    para- 
graphs, 92,  99 
Hairstreaks,  101 
hibernating  species  and  wing 

coloration,  93,  94 
immigration  of,  versus  hiberna- 
tion, 89,  90 

immigration  species,  89,  90 
in  chrysalis  stage  during  winter, 

96 

number  of  British  species,  90 
photographing,  87,  88 
Skippers,  101 
winter,  86 
Butterfly- 
Chalk  Hill  Blue,  100 
Clouded  Yellow  and  winter,  88, 

^89 
Comma,  93-5 

High  Brown  Fritillary,  101 


Butterfly — (continued) 
Large  White,  87,  96,  98 
most  beautiful  British,  176 
Orange-tip,  97 
Painted  Lady,  90,  127 
Peacock,  91,  93 
Purple  Emperor,  176 
Red  Admiral,  88 
Silver-studded  Blue,  100 
Small  Copper,  100 
Small      Tortoiseshell      during. 

winter,  91,  92 
Speckled  Wood,  99 
Swallow-tail,  25 
White  Admiral,  181 

Catabomba  pyrastri,  76 
Chalk  Hill  Blue  Butterfly,  100 
Chrysopa  vulgaris,  13 
Clear-wing  Moths,  117 
Clouded  Yellow  Butterfly,  88,  89 
Comma  Butterfly,  93,  94 

protective  colouring  of,  94,  95 
Cuckoo  Fly,  Ruby-tailed,  166,  169 
Currant  Moth,  150 

Darwin  and  earthworms,  55 

Death  Watch  Beetle— 
and  old  houses,  49 
and  superstition,  47-52 
and  woodwork,  48-51 
calling  to  its  mate,  52 
cowl-like  thorax  of,  51,  52 
feigning  death,  53,  54 
horny  thorax  of,  51 
tickings  of,  47-52 

Death  Watch  Beetles- 
how  to  remove  from  wood,  53 
their  function  in  Nature,  54 

Devil's  Coach-horse  Beetle,  103 
and    a    wandering    naturalist, 
105-9 


INDEX 


203 


Devil's  Coach-horse  Beetle— (con- 
tinued) 

attack  on  a  human  finger,  107-9 

biting  powers  of,  106-8 

colour  of,  104 

courage  of  a,  103-9 

method  of  scaring  its  foes,  105 

preparing  for  battle,  104,  105 

prey  of,  no 

tail  glands  and  volatile  fluid,  105 

ugliest  British  insect,  104 
Dicrarmra  vinula,  32 
Dor-beetle,  170 

"  parasites  "  of,  170-2 
Dor-beetle's  Mite,  170 

in  winter,  173 

mating  of,  173-5 

method  of  travelling,  173,  174 

Earthworms  and  Darwin,  55 

Flea- 
anatomy  of,  143,  146-8 
cat,  141,  149 
development  of,  148 
dog,  141,  149 
eggs  of,  148 
fowl,  146 
hedgehog, 143-5 
hedgehog,  curious  habit  of,  144, 

145 

human,  142,  143,  148,  149 
lancets  of,  147 
larvae  of,  148 
lateral    compression    of    body, 

146 
power    of      slipping     through 

closely-pressed  fingers,  146 
pygidium  of,  147 
Fleas,  141 

and  their  hosts,  141-3,  149 
degenerate  flies,  141 
jumping  powers  of,  143 
monkeys  immune  from,  142 
origin  of  parasitic  habit,  141 
Fly- 

Golden-eyed,  14 
Hover-,  76 
Ichneumon,  38 
Ichneumon   and  Magpie  Moth, 

158-60 

Lacewing,  13 
Ruby-tailed  Cuckoo,  166 


Fly — (continued) 
Tachina    and    Magpie     Moth, 

157-9 

Fritillary  Butterfly,  High  Brown, 
eggs  and  caterpillars  of,  101 

Gatnasus  coleoptratorum ,  170 
Golden-eyed   Fly  (see  Lacewing 

Fly),  14 

Gooseberry  Moth,  150 
Green-flies — 

and  Hover-flies,  76,  77 

eggs  of,  79 

reproductive  powers  of,  78,  79 

Hole  in  a  willow  stump,  112,  119 
what  came  out  of  the,  113 

Hover-flies — 
and  mint,  77 
to  encourage  in  gardens,  84,  85 

Hover-fly — 
and  aphides,  77 
eggs  of,  78,  79 

emergence  from  chrysalis,  83 
grub,  how  it  finds  its  prey,  81 
grub,  method  of  feeding,  81 
grub,  method  of  locomotion,  82 
grubs,  various  species,  83 
pupa  or  chrysalis  of,  83 
voracious  young  grub  of,  80 

Huxley,  Prof.,  estimate  of  de- 
scendants of  a  single  aphis, 
22,23 

Ichneumon  Flies  and  Puss  Moth, 

38-43 

Ichneumon  Fly — 
and  Magpie  Moth,  158-60 
effect  of  irritant  fluid   of  Puss 

Moth  larva  on,  42 
long-tailed,  125 

Lacewing  Fly — 
and  aphides,  16 
and  gardeners,  15,  16,  20 
capturing  of  the,  14,  15 
colours  of,  14,  20 
description  of  the,  14 
egg-depositing  of,  16,  17 
eggs,  number  deposited,  23 
eggs  of,  16,  17 
eggs  of,  abnormal,  19 
eggs,  use  of  stalk,  19 


2O4 


INDEX 


Lacewing  Fly — (continued) 

emergence  from  cocoon  of,  21 

eyes  of,  14 

flight  of,  13, 14 

offensive  characteristic  of,  15,  21 

pupa  or  chrysalis  of,  22 

time  of  development,  22 
Lacewing  Fly  larva — 

and  cannibalism,  18 

and  moths'  eggs,  18 

cocoon  of,  21 

emergence  from  egg  of,  17 

first  meal  of,  17,  18 

mandibles  of,  20 

Long-tailed  Ichneumon  Fly,  125-6 
Lunar  Hornet-moth,  114 

and  struggle  for  existence,  119 

buzzing  sound  of,  116 

chrysalis  of,  122,  123 

developing  diurnal  habits,  118 

egg-depositing  of,  120 

emergence  of,  113,  114 

evolution  of  its  wasp-like  char- 
acteristics, 118 

extent  of  wasp  mimicry  of,  115- 

17 

hornet-like  characteristics  of,  1 15 
transparent  wings  of,  116,  117 
wasp-like  antennae  of,  116 
Lunar  Hornet-moth  larva — 
closing  entrance  hole  to  boring, 

120,  121 

commencing  to  feed,  120 
curious  instinct  of,  122 
protection  against  enemies,  121 

Magpie  Moth,  150,  156 
and  British  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, 150 

caterpillars  of,  151-5 
cocoons  of,  155,  156 
eggs  of,  151 
larvae,    conspicuous   colour  of, 

152,  153 
pupa  of,  155,  156,  160 

Mint  and  Hover-flies,  77 

Mite,  Dor-beetle,  170-2 

Monkeys — 
habit  of  picking  particles  from 

their  coats,  142 
not  infested  by  fleas,  142 

Moth- 
Currant,  150 


Moth — (continued) 

Gooseberry,  150 

Lunar  Hornet-,  in 

Magpie,  150 

Puss,  32 

scales  from  wings  of,  116 
Moths— 

clear-wing,  117 

flight  of,  13 

Ocypus  olens,  103 
Orange-tip  Butterfly,  97,  98 
chrysalis  of,  97,  98 

Painted  Lady  Butterflies— 
and  strong  wind,  139,  140 
migration  of,  128,  139,  140 
multitude  of,  128 
origin  of  migratory  instinct,  140 
Painted  Lady  Butterfly,  127 
almost  a  cosmopolitan  species, 

127 
attachment  to  pitch  of  land  of, 

129 

chrysalis  of,  133 
development  of  its  wings,  135, 

136 

eggs  of,  130,  131 
emergence  of  caterpillar  from 

egg  of,  131 
first  outlook  on  the  world  of 

space,  137 
instinct    for    suitably    placing 

eggs,  130 

larva,  changing  to  chryalis,  132 
larva,  moulting  its  skin,  132,  133 
larva,  rate  of  growth  of,  131 
notorious  migrant,  90 
seeing    it    emerge    from    its 

chrysalis,  134,  135 
unexpected  appearance  of,  127 
Papilio  machaon,  25 
Path- Wasp,  163 
Peacock  Butterfly,  91,  93 
Pompilidce,  163 
Pompilus  exaltatus,  163 
Poulton,  Prof.,  experiment  with 
irritant  fluid  of  Puss    Moth 
larva,  41,  42 
Pulex,  141 
Purple    Emperor   Butterfly,   176, 

184-6 
bait  for,  179 


INDEX 


205 


Purple  Emperor  Butterfly— -(ow- 

tinued) 
caterpillar's  curious  method  of 

feeding,  181 
caterpillar's  marvellous  instinct 

of,  181,  182 
caterpillar's  resemblance   to  a 

slug,  183 

chrysalis  of,  183,  184 
chrysalis,    harmony    of  colour 

with  leaves,  184 
colours  of  female,  177 
eggs  of,  1 80 
emergence  from  chrysalis   of, 

184,  185 
flight  of,  178 

method  of  capturing,  179 
habitat  of,  177,  178 
Puss  Moth — 

and  Ichneumon  Flies,  38-43 
and  struggle  for  existence,  32 
chrysalis  of,  44,  45 
cocoon  of,  43,  44 
eggs,  where  deposited,  32 
emergence  from  cocoon  of,  44, 

45 
meaning  of  marking  on  wings, 

45,46 

Puss  Moth  larva — 
development  of    mask    of,  34, 

effect  of  irritant  fluid  of,  41 
effect  of  mask  on  enemy,  36-8 
emergence  from  egg  of,  32,  33 
eye-spots  of,  35 

formic  acid  gland  in  mask  of,  41 
influence    of     tail     whips    on 

Ichneumon  Fly,  40 
meaning  of  its  mask,  35,  36 
protective  coloration  of,  36 
tail  appendages  of,  33,  38-40 
young,   and  protective   colour- 
ing, 33 

young,  and  feeding  habits,  33 
Puss  Moth,  larvae    of,   changing 

colour,  33,  34 
Pyramcis  cardui,  127 

Reaumur,  estimate  of  descendants 

of  a  single  aphis,  22 
Red  Admiral  Butterfly  and  winter, 

88,89 
Ruby-tailed  Cuckoo  Fly,  166 


Scale-insects,  124 

Shipworm,  55 

Silver-studded     Blue     Butterfly,, 

eggs  of,  100,  101 
Small  Copper  Butterfly,  100 

caterpillars  hibernating,  100 
Speckled  Wood  Butterfly,  99 

caterpillars  of,  100 
Spider  and  winter,  201 

cruelty  of  female,  187,  200 

economy  of,  200,  201 

evolution  of  its  snares,  193,  194 

face  of,  198 

foot  of,  197,  198 

poison-fangs  of,  199 

silk  glands  of,  197 

snare  of,  191 

spinnerets  of,  196,  197,  198 

viscid  threads  of  snare,  192,  193. 

Wolf,  165 

wooing  by  male,  189-91 
Spider-hunting  wasp,  162,  169 

enemy  of,  166 

searching  for  prey,  163-5 

storing  nest,  166-9 
Spiders    and    insects,    difference 
between,  187,  188 

aversion  to,  187,  188 

trap-door,  195,  196 

tube-living,  193-6 
Swallow-tail  Butterfly,  caterpillars- 
of,  27 

change  to  chrysalis,  27,  28 

chrysalis,  colour  of,  28 

chrysalis,  instincts  developed  in, 
29 

chrysalis,  reconstruction  within, 

28,  29 

colours  of,  25 

development  of  its  wings,  30 
difference    of    habits    with    its 

caterpillar,  29 

egg-depositing  instinct  of,  31 
emergence  from   chrysalis  of, 

29,  30 

mating  of,  26 
popular  name  of,  25 
where  found,  98 

Tachina  Flies,  157,  158 
Tachinidce,  157 

Tits  and  cocoon  of    Puss   Moth, 
44 


2O4 


INDEX 


Lacewing  Fly — (continued) 

emergence  from  cocoon  of,  21 

eyes  of,  14 

flight  of,  13, 14 

offensive  characteristic  of,  15,  21 

pupa  or  chrysalis  of,  22 

time  of  development,  22 
Lacewing  Fly  larva — 

and  cannibalism,  18 

and  moths'  eggs,  18 

cocoon  of,  21 

emergence  from  egg  of,  17 

first  meal  of,  17,  18 

mandibles  of,  20 

Long-tailed  Ichneumon  Fly,  125-6 
Lunar  Hornet-moth,  114 

and  struggle  for  existence,  119 

buzzing  sound  of,  116 

chrysalis  of,  122,  123 

developing  diurnal  habits,  118 

egg-depositing  of,  120 

emergence  of,  113,  114 

evolution  of  its  wasp-like  char- 
acteristics, 118 

extent  of  wasp  mimicry  of,  115- 
17 

hornet-like  characteristics  of ,  1 15 

transparent  wings  of,  116,  117 

wasp-like  antennae  of,  116 
Lunar  Hornet-moth  larva — 

closing  entrance  hole  to  boring, 
120,  121 

commencing  to  feed,  120 

curious  instinct  of,  122 

protection  against  enemies,  121 

Magpie  Moth,  150,  156 
and  British  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, 150 

caterpillars  of,  151-5 
cocoons  of,  155,  156 
eggs  of,  151 
larvae,    conspicuous   colour  of, 

152,  153 
pupa  of,  155,  156,  160 

Mint  and  Hover-flies,  77 

Mite,  Dor-beetle,  170-2 

Monkeys — 
habit  of  picking  particles  from 

their  coats,  142 
not  infested  by  fleas,  142 

Moth- 
Currant,  150 


Moth — (continued) 

Gooseberry,  150 

Lunar  Hornet-,  in 

Magpie,  150 

Puss,  32 

scales  from  wings  of,  116 
Moths— 

clear-wing,  117 

flight  of,  13 

Ocypus  olens,  103 
Orange-tip  Butterfly,  97,  98 
chrysalis  of,  97,  98 

Painted  Lady  Butterflies— 
and  strong  wind,  139,  140 
migration  of,  128,  139,  140 
multitude  of,  128 
origin  of  migratory  instinct,  140 
Painted  Lady  Butterfly,  127 
almost  a  cosmopolitan  species, 

127 
attachment  to  pitch  of  land  of, 

129 

chrysalis  of,  133 
development  of  its  wings,  135, 

136 

eggs  of,  130,  131 
emergence  of  caterpillar  from 

egg  of,  131 
first  outlook  on  the  world  of 

space,  137 
instinct    for    suitably    placing 

eggs,  130 

larva,  changing  to  chryalis,  132 
larva,  moulting  its  skin,  132,  133 
larva,  rate  of  growth  of,  131 
notorious  migrant,  90 
seeing    it    emerge    from    its 

chrysalis,  134,  135 
unexpected  appearance  of,  127 
Papilio  machaon,  25 
Path-Wasp,  163 
Peacock  Butterfly,  91,  93 
Pompilidce,  163 
Pompilus  exaltatus,  163 
Poulton,  Prof.,  experiment  with 
irritant  fluid  of  Puss    Moth 
larva,  41,  42 
Pulex,  141 
Purple    Emperor   Butterfly,   176, 

184-6 
bait  for,  179 


INDEX 


20$ 


Purple  Emperor  Butterfly— (con- 
tinued) 

caterpillar's  curious  method  of 
feeding,  181 

caterpillar's  marvellous  instinct 
of,  181,  182 

caterpillar's  resemblance   to  a 
slug,  183 

chrysalis  of,  183,  184 

chrysalis,    harmony    of  colour 
with  leaves,  184 

colours  of  female,  177 

eggs  of,  1 80 

emergence  from  chrysalis   of, 
184,  185 

flight  of,  178 

method  of  capturing,  179 

habitat  of,  177,  178 
Puss  Moth — 

and  Ichneumon  Flies,  38-43 

and  struggle  for  existence,  32 

chrysalis  of,  44,  45 

cocoon  of,  43,  44 

eggs,  where  deposited,  32 

emergence  from  cocoon  of,  44, 

45 
meaning  of  marking  on  wings, 

45,46 

Puss  Moth  larva — 
development  of    mask    of,  34, 

effect  of  irritant  fluid  of,  41 
effect  of  mask  on  enemy,  36-8 
emergence  from  egg  of,  32,  33 
eye-spots  of,  35 

formic  acid  gland  in  mask  of,  41 
influence    of     tail     whips    on 

Ichneumon  Fly,  40 
meaning  of  its  mask,  35,  36 
protective  coloration  of,  36 
tail  appendages  of,  33,  38-40 
young,   and  protective   colour- 
ing, 33 

young,  and  feeding  habits,  33 
Puss  Moth,  larvae    of,   changing 

colour,  33,  34 
Pyramcis  cardui,  127 

Reaumur,  estimate  of  descendants 

of  a  single  aphis,  22 
Red  Admiral  Butterfly  and  winter, 

88,89 
Ruby-tailed  Cuckoo  Fly,  166 


Scale-insects,  124 

Shipworm,  55 

Silver-studded     Blue     Butterfly,, 

eggs  of,  100,  101 
Small  Copper  Butterfly,  100 

caterpillars  hibernating,  100 
Speckled  Wood  Butterfly,  99 

caterpillars  of,  100 
Spider  and  winter,  201 

cruelty  of  female,  187,  200 

economy  of,  200,  201 

evolution  of  its  snares,  193,  194 

face  of,  198 

foot  of,  197,  198 

poison-fangs  of,  199 

silk  glands  of,  197 

snare  of,  191 

spinnerets  of,  196,  197,  198 

viscid  threads  of  snare,  192,  193. 

Wolf,  165 

wooing  by  male,  189-91 
Spider-hunting  wasp,  162,  169 

enemy  of,  166 

searching  for  prey,  163-5 

storing  nest,  166-9 
Spiders    and    insects,    difference 
between,  187,  188 

aversion  to,  187,  188 

trap-door,  195,  196 

tube-living,  193-6 
Swallow-tail  Butterfly,  caterpillars- 
of,  27 

change  to  chrysalis,  27,  28 

chrysalis,  colour  of,  28 

chrysalis,  instincts  developed  in, 
29 

chrysalis,  reconstruction  within, 

28,  29 

colours  of,  25 

development  of  its  wings,  30 
difference    of    habits    with    its 

caterpillar,  29 

egg-depositing  instinct  of,  31 
emergence  from   chrysalis  of> 

29,  30 

mating  of,  26 
popular  name  of,  25 
where  found,  98 

Tachina  Flies,  157,  158 
Tadiinidce,  157 

Tits  and  cocoon  of    Puss   Moth, 
44 


206 


INDEX 


Tortoiseshell,    Small,     Butterfly, 

Qi-3 
Trochilium  crabroniformis,  in 

Vcspa  britannica,  57 
Vespa  vulgaris,  57 

Wasp,  common — 

huge  comb  of,  73 

number  reared  in  nest,  73 

grubs,  food  of,  71 

paper,  60,  74 

pupae,  71,  72 
Wasp,  queen,  59,  60,  60-72,  75 

and  fruit-growers,  73,  74 

awakening  of,  after  hibernating, 
69 

method  of  building  nest,  70,  71 
Wasp,  Tree—,  paper  of,  73,  74 

winter,  75 
Wasps,  first  that  appear  in  summer, 

59 

males,  60,  62,  64 
mating  of,  65 


Wasps — (continued) 
nest  of,  60,  74 
neuters  or  workers,  59,  60 
normal  end  of  workers,  62 
October,  58 
origin  of  the  young  queens  and 

males,  63,  64 
strange  happenings  within  the 

nest,  6 1,  64,  65 
Tree-,  73, 74 

workers  depositing  eggs,  72 
workers'  last  labour   for    their 

race,  67,  68 
workers,  method  of  building,  72 

73 
workers    removing  grubs  from 

cells,  65-8 
White  ants  as  natural  scavengers, 

55 

White,   Large,    Butterfly,   87,  96, 

98 

Wolf  Spider,  165 
"  Worm-eaten  "  furniture,  etc.,  49, 

50,  54.  55 


UNWIN  BROTHERS,  LIMITED.  THE  GRESHAM  PRESS    WOKING  AND  LONDON. 


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